REESE    LIBRARY 

01    TH'K 

UNIVERSITY   OF 'CALIFORNIA. 

Received-.  «-^7^W^      / 

Accessions  No.,^2-?-?1^^'??  &      Slielj  -\'t\ 


THE 


ELEMENTS  OF  FORESTRY 


DESIGNED   TO    AFFORD    INFORMATION    CONCERNING    THE 
PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  FOREST  TREES 


FOR  ORNAMENT  OR  PROFIT 


AND    GIVING   SUGGESTIONS   UPON 


THE  CREATION  AND  CARE  OF  WOODLANDS 


WITH  THE  VIEW  OF  SECURING  THE  GREATEST  BENEFIT  FOR 

THE  LONGEST  TIME,  PARTICULARLY  ADAPTED  TO  THE 

WANTS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY 

FKANKLIX  B.  HOUGH,  Pn.D 

Chief  of  Forestry  Division,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  etc. 


THE 

UNIVERSITY 


CINCINNATI 
ROBERT  CLARKE  &  CO 


CoprmGHT,  1882, 
BY  EGBERT  CLARKE  &  CO. 


PREFACE. 


In  preparing  this  work,  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
present,  in  a  concise  form,  a  general  outline  of  the  subject 
of  Forestry  in  its  most  ample  relations,  without  attempting 
to  be  exhaustive  in  any  thing.  Technical  details  have  been 
avoided  as  far  as  was  thought  possible;  but  in  mentioning 
the  names  of  trees  and  other  organic  objects,  the  scientific  as 
well  as  the  common  names  have  generally  both  been  used, 
chiefly  because  the  latter  are  often  quite  uncertain  in  their 
application,  while  the  former  can  never  be  mistaken  when 
rightly  applied,  and  are  alike  in  the  scientific  literature  of 
all  languages.  In  noticing  the  various  subjects  embraced, 
care  has  been  taken  to  mention  the  economical  uses  and 
commercial  values  that  pertain  to  jhem,  and  in  describing 
different  methods,  a  preference  has  been  stated  whenever 
it  was  thought  to  lead  to  best  results. 

The  engravings  in  this  work  are  chiefly  derived  from 
the  following  sources :  Those  occupying  full  pages,  and 
showing  details  of  structure  of  some  of  the  principal 
species  of  Timber-trees,  and  the  laws  of  development  and 
growth,  are  from  "  Der  Wald,"  by  E.  A.  Rossmassler,  an 
approved  German  author.  The  engravings  showing  de- 
tails of  wood  structure,  are  chiefly  from  "  Les  Bois,"  by 
M.  M.  Dupont  and  Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  and  some  of  the 
illustrations  of  botanical  species  are  from  the  "  Guide  du 
Forestier,"  by  the  latter.  The  figures  of  insects,  and  their 
ravages,  are  from  "  Les  Ravageurs  des  Forets,"  by  II.  de 
la  Blanchere.  Those  of  Charcoal  Kilns,  are  from  the 
"  Journal  of  the  U.  S.  Asso.  Charcoal  Iron  Workers,"  and 
those  of  Charcoal  Meilers,  from  the  American  edition  of 
Svedelius'  "  Handbook  for  Charcoal  Burners."  A  few  of 

(iii) 


iv  Preface. 

the  smaller  illustrations  of  Botanical  species  are  from  an 
English  work,  entitled  "Woodland  Gleanings,"  and  those 
showing  defects  in  timber,  in  part  from  Laslett's  "  Timber- 
Trees."  Three  or  four  are  from  Dupuis'  "Arbres  d'  Orne- 
ment"  and  his  "  Coniferes  de  Pleine  Terre,"  and  the 
sketches  of  western  conifers  and  other  species,  are  from 
Prof.  J.  S.  Dewberry's  Report,  embraced  in  Vol.  VI,  of 
the  "Pacific  Railroad  Surveys."  The  remainder  are  from 
the  author's  first  Report  upon  Forestry,  presented  in  1877, 
and  published  by  order  of  Congress,  except  some  small 
sketches  drawn  for  the  present  work. 

Wherever  the  language  of  an  author  has  been  quoted, 
the  citations  given  will  generally  lead  to  more  extended 
information,  and  in  the  absence  of  references,  it  is  believed 
that  the  facts  and  principles  here  presented  will  generally 
be  found  such  as  are  supported  by  approved  experience 
and  well  established  observation. 

Although  many  special  works  upon  planting,  arbori- 
culture, botanical  descriptions,  and  other  subjects  relating 
to  particular  departments  of  Forestry  have  been  issued,  at 
various  times,  this  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  first  attempt 
to  present,  in  our  language,  and  in  one  volume,  the  sub- 
ject of  Forestry  in  the  comprehensive  sense  that  we  have 
defined  it.  It  would  have  been  much  easier  to  do  this  in 
a  larger  volume,  and  it  was  often  found  a  difficult  task  to 
condense  into  the  space  that  could  be  allowed  to  the  several 
divisions  of  the  subject,  all  that  it  was  desirable  to  present 
concerning  it.  We  have  endeavored  to  adapt  this  work 
to  the  want  of  students  in  Forestry,  whether  in  the  class- 
rooms of  an  institution,  or  engaged  in  practical  labors; 
and  it  has  been  our  special  aim  to  present  information  that 
is  applicable  to  our  own  country,  and  to  those  regions 
where  tree-planting  is  most  needed,  and  often  most  diffi- 
cult. If  it  is  found  to  meet  this  intention,  our  object  will 
be  attained. 

WASHINGTON,  July  1,  1882. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Forestry — Sylviculture — Arboriculture — Sciences  involved — Trees — A 
Species — A  Genus — A  Natural  Order — Names  used  in  scientific  de- 
scriptions   1-4 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF    SOILS    AND    THEIR    PREPARATION.       EFFECTS    CF    SLOPE    AND    ASPECT. 

Composition  of  Soils — Tlumus — Loam — How  they  affect  the  Growths  of 
Trees — Silecious,  Calcareous,  Argillaceous,  and  Alkaline  Soils — Color 
of  Soils — How  affected  by  underlying  Rocks — Preparation  for  plant- 
ing— Effect  of  Slope  and  Aspect — Degrees  of  Inclination 4-10 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF  CLIMATE  AND  METEOROLOGICAL  INFLUENCES. 

Definition  of  Climate — The  Atmosphere  and  its  Elements — Oxygen — 
Nitrogen — Carbonic  Acid  Gas — Aqueous  Vapor — Absolute  and  rela- 
tive Humidity— Effect  of  Heat  and  of  Cold — Dew — Fogs  and  Clouds 
— Rains — Effect  of  Woodlands — Evaporation — Percolation — Tem- 
perature of  Soils — Winds — Agency  of  Water  in  Vegetation — Effects 
of  Frost — Injuries  from  Snow — The  Timber-line — Decline  of  Fruit- 
production — Ruin  from  clearing  off  of  Forests — Probable  Effects  in 
Western  Territories 10-28 

CHAPTER  IV. 

REPRODUCTION    FROM    SEED. 

The  Blossom — Fertilization —Distribution  of  Tree-seeds — Dispersion  by 
Winds,  by  Animals,  by  Water — Early-ripening  Seeds — Gathering 
and  keeping  of  Seeds,  Nuts  and  Acorns — Germination — Time  of 

sowing  or  planting — Vitalitv  of  Seeds 28-iJG 

(v) 


vi  Contents. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF    THE    VARIOUS    MODES    OF    PROPAGATION    OF    FOREST   TREES. 

Seeds  planted  where  the  Trees  are  to  grow — Methods  employed — 
Planting  of  Walnut  and  other  Nut-Trees — Soaking  of  Seeds — Plant- 
ing in  Seed-beds  and  Nurseries — Spring  and  Fall  planting — Propaga- 
tion from  Cuttings,  Layers,  and  other  Methods — Grafting 37-46 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PL  AN  1  ING    CONTINUED. 

Intervals  between  Trees — Planting  in  Rows,  in  Squares,  in  Quincunx 
Order — in  Triangles — Number  of  Trees  on  given  Areas — Necessity 
of  close  planting — Planting  of  young  Trees  from  the  Forests — Plant- 
ing on  the  Sod — Planting  without  disturbance  of  Roots — Transplant- 
ing of  large  Trees — Disadvantage  of  planting  of  too  large  Size — 
Planting  of  Rocky  Surfaces — Of  mulching — Of  thinning — Trimming 
and  Pruning — Pollards — Removal  of  outer  Bark — Arbor-days.  47-62 

CHAPTER  VII. 

OF    THE     STRUCTURE     AND     FUNCTIONS     OF     THE     VARIOUS     PARTS     OF     GROWING 

TREES. 

The  Buds— The  Leaves— The  Wood  and  Bark— The  growth  of  the 
Trunk  and  Branches — Eccentric  Forms  of  Growth — The  Roots — The 
pressure  of  Sap  and  its  Changes— Autumnal  Colors 63-79 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

GENERAL    VIEWS    IX    REGARD    TO    FORESTRY. 

On  the  investment  of  Labor  and  Capital — Questions  of  Profit — The 
due  Proportion  of  Woodlands  and  cultivated  Fields — Forest  Areas 
in  Europe — Resemblances  and  Contrasts  in  Timber-Growth — General 
Glance  at  Forest  Resources  of  United  States  and  Canada — New  Eng- 
land, Middle,  Southern  and  Western  States — Rocky  Mountain  Re- 
gion— Pacific  Coast — Canada — Great  Britain — Alternations  of  Forest 
Growth 79-91 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ACTS    OF    CONGRESS    RELATING    TO    TIMBER-RIGHTS. 

Timber-culture  Acts — Homestead  Entry  Act — Use  of  Timber  by  Rail- 
road Companies — Privileges  in  certain  States  and  Territories — .Sale 
of  Timber-lands..,,  91-96 


Contents.  vii 


CHAPTER  X. 

EUROPEAN  PLANS  OF  FOREST  MANAGEMENT. 

Method  of  Selection — Coppice-growth — Woodlands  grown  to  full  Ma- 
turity— European  Forest  Administrations — Schools  of  Forestry — 
Planting  of  Dunes — Reboisement — Checking  of  Torrents — Covering 
denuded  Slopes — Plantations  in  Scotland 96-113 

CHAPTER  XI. 

ORNAMENTAL    PLANTING. 

Pleasures  and  Benefits — Home-adornment — Village-Improvement  and 
the  planting  of  Waysides — City  Parks — Rural  Cemeteries — Grounds 
around  Public  Institutions 113-127 

CHAPTER  XII. 

HEDGES,  SCREENS    AND    SHELTER-BELTS. 

Hedges  and  Screens — Shelter-belts— Planting  along  Railroads — Plant- 
ing on  Russian  Steppes 127-137 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CUTTING    AND    SEASONING    OF   WOOD.       DEFECTS    IN    TIMBER. 

Proper  Time  for  Cutting — Seasoning  of  Woods — Shrinkage — Strength 
of  Wood  with  respect  to  Lines  of  Growth — Defects  of  Various 
kinds 137-144 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

FUEL.       CHARCOAL.       WOOD-GAS. 

Qualities  desirable  in  Wood  for  Fuel — Charcoal — Table  of  Heating 
Qualities  of  Wood,  by  Mr.  Bull — Modes  of  making  Charcoal — Meilers 
or  Coal-pits — Kilns — Red  Charcoal — Distilled  Products — Illuminat- 
ing Wood-gas 144-154 

CHAPTER  XV. 

FOREST    FIRES.  » 

Their  Causes — Prevention — Control 154-159 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

PROTECTION    FROM    OTHER    INJURIES    THAN   FIRES. 

Pasturage  of  Woodlands — Injuries  to  Seeds  and  Seedlings  by  Wild 
Animals....  ..  159-161 


viii  Contents. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

INSECT    RAVAGES    IN    WOODLANDS. 

General  Statements — Effect  upon  Wood-growth — Coleoptera — Orthop- 
tera — Hemiptera — Neuroptera — Lepidoptera —  Hymenoptera  —  Dip- 
tera — Insects  that  attack  the  Oaks — Elms — Hickories — Black  Wal- 
nuts —Butternuts — Chestnut — Locust — Maples — Cotton  woods —  Pop- 
lars— Lindens — Birches — Beech — Willows — Pines — Spruces —  Firs — 
Hemlocks...  „  161-187 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PROCESSES    FOR    INCREASING    THE    DURABILITY    OF    TIMBER,    OR    FOR    IMPROVING 

ITS    QUALITY. 

General  Statements — Causes  of  Decay — Charring — Immersion  in  Water 
— Penetration  of  Liquids,  and  of  Solids  in  Solution — Oils — Crude 
Petroleum — Salt — Incombustible  Wood — Alum  —  Borax  —  Lime  — 
Processes  of  Bethell — Boucherie — Burnett — Carey — Hatsfield — Kyan 
Margary  —  Payne  —  Prescott  —  Robbins  —  Tait  —  Thilmany  —  Re- 
cipes   187-199 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

RESINOUS   AND    OTHER    PRODUCTS    OF    CONIFERS. 

Naval  Stores — Turpentine — Spirits  of  Turpentine — Rosin — Methods  of 
Resinage — Economy  and  Waste — French  Methods  with  the  Maritime 
Pine — Tar — Pitch — Lamp-black — Canada  Balsam — Essential  Oils — 
Perfume  from  Pine-sap 199-205 

CHAPTER  XX. 

USE    OF    WOOD    IN    THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    PAPER. 

Mechanical  Processes  of  Volter,  Hartmann,  Siebricht,  etc. — Chemical 
Processes — Cultivation  of  Poplars  for  Paper  Pulp 205-206 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

TANNING    MATERIALS. 

Supplies  from  the  Oak— Hemlocks,  etc. — Tanning  Extracts — Manage- 
ment  of  Oak-Coppices — Peeling  by  the  Aid  of  Heat— Sumac.  206-210 


Cont'..  nts.  ix 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    PARTICULAR    SPECIES. 

Oaks — Chestnuts — Beeches — Birches — Alders —  Hornbeam —  Maples  — 
Box-Elders — Lindens — Elms — Osage-Orange — Mulberry — Hackberry 
— Tulip-tree — Sycamores — Buckeyes — Soap-berry — Locusts — Coffee- 
tree — Red-bud — Acacias — Yellow-wood — Pears  and  Apples  —  Crab- 
trees — Plums  and  Cherries — Thorn-trees — Service-berry — Eucalyptus 
— Eugenias — Cornel  Family — Sour-Gum — Elders — Elms —  Butter- 
bush — Silver-bell — Ashes — Olive — Lilac — Hickories — Black  Walnut 
Butternut — Poplars — Cotton  woods — Willows — Ailanthus — Arbutus 
— Manzinita — Paw-paws — Catalpas  — Mountain  Mahogany —  Persim- 
mon— Burning-Bush —  Holly  Family —  Laurels — Sweet-Gum —  Mag- 
nolias— Pride-of-India —  Iron-woods —  Sorrel-tree —  Mesquits —  Buck- 
thorns —  Sumacs  —  Sassafras  —  Buffalo-berry  —  Mahogany  — Arrow- 
wood,  etc 210-299 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE    CONIFERS. 

General  Statement  and  Definitions — Classification — Cypress  Family — 
Yews — Families  not  represented  in  U.  S. — Pine  Family — The  Cy- 
presses and  White  Cedars — The  Junipers — Red-Cedars — Bald-Cypress 
— Sequoias — Giant-trees — Redwood  —  Yews  —  Torreyas  —  Ginkgo  — 
Pines — Spruces — Hemlocks — Douglas  Fir — Firs — Larches...  299-345 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TRFE-PLANTING    IX    KANSAS    AND    NEBRASKA. 

List  of  Species  approved  in  Kansas,  by  Counties — Propagation  by  Cut- 
tings and  Native  Seedlings — Distances  between  Trees — Effect  of 
Shelter-belts — Locust-trees  in  Central  Kansas — Gathering  and  Pre- 
serving Seeds — Preparation  of  the  Ground — Tree-culture  on  the 
Plains...  ..  346-353 


Recent  Decision  under  Timber-culture  Act 354 


ELEMENTS  OF  FORESTRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1.  Forestry,  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  is  that  branch  of 
knowledge    that    treats    of    woodlands — their  formation,   mainte- 
nance, and  renewal,  the  influences  that  may  affect  their  welfare ; 
the  methods  employed  in  their  management,  the  removal,  prepara- 
tion, and  use  of  their  products,  and  the  economies  that  may  be 
gained  by  skillful  operation. 

2.  Sylviculture1  is  that  part  of  Forestry  which  relates  to  the  plant- 
ing and  cultivation  of  groves  and  collective  bodies  of  forest  trees. 

3.  Arboriculture'2  treats  of  the  cultivation  of  trees.     It  is  some- 
times limited  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees,  but  the  term  may 
properly  be  extended  to  include  the  planting  and  care  of  trees  gen- 
erally, whether  for  fruit,  ornament,  or  other  use. 

4.  Forestry  involves  the  application  of  many  branches  of  science : 
(a.)  From  natural  history  it  derives  the  description  and  classifica- 
tion of  trees,  and  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  life  that  affect  their 
welfare. 

(6.)  From  geology  and  mineralogy,  it  learns  the  origin  and  com- 
position of  soils  and  sub-soils,  and  of  the  rock  formations  from 
which  they  are  derived,  their  constituent  parts,  their  permeability, 
and  their  fitness  for  the  successful  growth  of  particular  kinds  of 
trees. 

(c.)  By  the  aid  of  chemistry  it  determines  the  elements  of  the 
soil,  the  composition  and  changes  that  take  place  in  the  growth  and 
decay  of  wood,  the  methods  that  may  be  used  for  increasing  its  du- 
rability or  improving  its  quality,  and  the  various  operations  con- 
cerned in  the  production  and  use  of  its  chemical  products. 

(c?.)  From  mathematics  it  derives  aid  in  all  processes  of  measure- 

(1)  From  syha.  "  a  grove."  (2)  From  arbor,  "a  tree." 


2  Definitions. 

ment  and  calculation  concerned  in  forest  lands,  materials,  manage- 
ment, working,  or  revenues. 

(e.)  From  mechanics,  it  applies  the  various  agencies  employed  in 
cutting,  transporting,  and  manufacture  of  wood  and  timber  in  every 
form. 

(/.)  From  physics  and  meteorology,  it  determines  the  various 
questions  of  atmospheric  influence  and  of  climate  that  may  arise, 
whether  as  cause  or  effect,  and  seeks  to  learn  how  these  may  be  im- 
proved to  best  advantage,  and,  in  some  cases,  controlled. 

(#.)  From  political  economy,  it  applies  the  principles  that  deter- 
mine questions  of  supply  and  demand,  of  public  policy,  and  of 
financial  profits,  the  interests  that  arc  involved,  and  their  mutual 
dependence,  the  laws  of  trade,  as  they  concern  forest  products  or 
properties,  and  whatever  principles  may  relate  to  their  creation, 
production,  or  management. 

5.  An  intelligent  system  of  Forestry  aims  to  impart  knowledge  as 
to  the  conditions  best  adapted  to  cultivation,  the  best  methods  of 
securing  a  growth  of  trees  by  seeding  or  planting,  the  use  of  meas- 
ures that  shall  secure  their  thrifty  growths,  protection  from  injuries, 
natural  renewal  at  period  of  full  maturity  or  time  for  use,  and  a 
constant  tendency  toward  improvement  of  the  products. 

6.  A  Tree,  is  a  plant  having  a  woody  root,  trunk,  and  branches. 
We  generally  apply  the  term  shrub  to  trees  that  are  less  than  fifteen 
feet  in  height  at  maturity,  and  the  term  buth  to  those  that  grow  to 
six  feet  in  height  or  less.     These  terms  are  however  arbitrary,  in 
their  use,  and  can  not  be  with  certainty  applied  to  any  species. 

7.  Trees  may  increase  from  within,  as  in  the  case  of  palms,  or  by 
the  deposit  of  wood  in  annual  layers  under  the  bark.     The  former 
have  no  bark  proper,  and  are  called  Endogenous,  a  term  signifying 
"growing  from  within."    They  are  represented  in  the  Southern 
States  by  the  palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto),  and  a  few  other  species,  but 
on  account  of  their  slight  relative  importance  as  forest  trees,  they 
will  be  no  further  noticed  in  this  work.     The  latter  are  termed  Ex- 
ogenous, a  term  signifying  "growing  from  without, "and  increase  by 
the  deposit  of  new  layers  of  wood  on  the  outside,  under  the  bark. 
This  great  division  includes,  with  the  above  exception,  all  of  the  ua-- 
tive  and  naturalized  trees  of  the  United  States. 

8.  A  Species,  when  used  in  Forestry,  is  understood  to  mean  a  group 
of  trees  or  other  plants,  resembling  in  the  details  of  their  structure, 


Definitions.  3 

and  producing  the  like  forms  of  growth  from  their  seeds.  They  are 
subject  to  many  variations,  due  to  differences  of  soil,  climate,  and 
other  causes,  and  occasionally  produce  unusual  forms  in  their  leaves, 
size  and  color  of  flowers,  quality  of  fruit,  or  habits  of  growth,  which 
are  called  "  sports."  In  other  cases,  hybrids  will  form  by  cross-fer- 
tilization, the  result  being  a  tree  that  partakes  of  some  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  both  species.  This  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  oaks  and 
the  willows,  but  as  a  rule  the  species  remain  distinct.  These  devi- 
ations from  the  normal  type  may  be  perpetuated  by  budding,  graft- 
ing, or  layers,  but  when  they  bear  fertile  seeds,  they  do  not  produce 
plants  having  like  peculiarities,  and  tend  to  return  to  their  original 
forms. 

9.  A  Genus,  rs  usually  a  group  of  species  having  common  resem- 
blances in  the  structure  of  the  flowers  and  fruit,  and  generally,  in 
their  leaves  and  in  the  habit  of  growth,  such  as  the  pines,  maples, 
birches,  etc.     In  some  cases,  however,  a  genus  may  include  but  one 
species.     They  are  sometimes  divided  into  groups  or  sub-genera, 
having  some  common  resemblance,  and  occasionally  these  may  be 
further  arranged  into  other  groups,  having  common  forms  or  prop- 
erties.    Where  there  are  several  species  in  a  genus,  they  may  be 
generally  grafted  upon  one  another,  but  in  other  cases  this  can  only 
be  done  successfully  within  the  group  or  sub-genus  to  which  the 
species  belong. 

10.  A  Natural  Order,  in  botany,  is  a  class  of  trees  or  plants  that 
usually  embraces  several  genera^having  a  common  resemblance  in 
the  structure  of  the  seed  and  fruit  and  in  manner  of  growth,  differ- 
ing from  all  others  and  constant  within  itself.     These  are  again 
sometimes  divided  into  sub-orders,  families,  or  groups,  depending 
upon  a  common  resemblance,  and  instances  occur  in  which  a  natural 
order  includes  but  a  single  genus. 

11.  We  have  examples  of  natural  orders  in  the  Coniferce,  embrac- 
ing the  pines,  firs,  spruces,  cedars,  junipers,  etc.,  and  in  the  Legum- 
inosce,  or  bean-like  fruited  plants,  which  include,  among  trees,  the 
locusts,   honey-locusts,   acacias,   Kentucky   coffee-tree,   and    many 
others. 

12.  The   description  and   classification   of  orders,   genera,   and 
species  among  trees  form  a  part  of  the  province  of  botany,  and  will 
not  be  attempted  in  this  work.     In  mentioning  the  common  names 


4  Of  Soils,  etc.  —  Humus.  —  Muck. 

of  trees,  we  shall  generally  give  with  them  their  scientific  or  botani- 
cal names,  as  a  means  for  more  exact  designation. 

13.  The  common  names  are  very  uncertain,  and  may  in  one  re- 
gion be  applied  to  species  very  unlike  those  where  they  are  used  in 
another.  But  the  scientific  names,  rightly  applied,  are  exactly  un- 
derstood in  every  language  in  which  the  sciences  are  taught,  and 
can  not  be  mistaken  for  any  others.  They  are  very  generally  de- 
rived from  Greek  or  Latin  words,  expressing  some  quality  or  char- 
acter in  the  genus  or  species  to  which  they  are  applied.  The  generic 
name  is  more  commonly  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  the  specific 
name  from  the  Latin.  The  former  always  begins  with  a  capital  let- 
ter —  the  latter  only  when  it  is  derived  from  a  proper  noun.  Where 
a  number  of  species  are  mentioned  in  succession,  the  initial  letter 
only  of  the  genus  will  be  used  after  the  first  one,  as  Pinm  strobus, 
P.  mitisy  P.  rigida,  etc. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION  —  EFFECTS  OF  SLOPE  AND  ASPECT. 

14.  The  soil  or  loose  material  that  generally  covers  the  surface  of 
the  earth  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  partakes  in  a  large  degree  of 
the  chemical  character  of  the  rock  formations  from  which  it  has 
been  derived.     These  may  be  the  subjacent  rocks,  or  the  material 
may  have  been   transported   by  former  geological  agencies,  as  in 
"drift,"  or  deposited  by  those  now  in  action,  as  in  alluvial  mud, 
or  littoral  sands. 

15.  Besides  these  mineral  components,  the  soil  generally  contains 
more  or  less  organic  material,  derived  from  vegetation,  or,  to  slight 
extent,  from  animal  life.    In  the  native  forests,  this  '  '  vegetable  soil  " 
has  been  mostly  created  by  the  trees  and  herbage,  from  materials 
taken  up  in  solution  by  the  roots  from  the  soil,  and  absorbed  by  the 
leaves  from  the  air,  and  has  gradually  accumulated  from  the  decay 
of  the  leaves,  or  of  the  trees  and  plants  themselves. 

16.  This  organic  material  is  called  humus,  and  its  quality  and 
amount  depends  upon  the  kind  and  quantity  that  has  been  allowed 
to  decompose.     It  is  sometimes  known  as  "  vegetable  mold,"  and 
has  no  definite  chemical  composition,  but  contains   Humic  acid 
(C20H12O6),  and  various  other  organic  compounds.     When  vege- 
tation decays  in  moist  places,  as  in  swamps,  it  forms  muck,  and 


Peat. — Loam. — Functions  of  the  Roots.  5 

in  some  situations  peat.  These  vary  considerably  in  composition, 
and  the  latter  contains  so  large  an  amount  of  carbon  that  it  is  used 
profitably  as  a  fuel.  The  former,  when  mixed  with  animal  manures, 
and  the  latter,  when  its  acidity  has  been  neutralized  by  lime  or  al- 
kalies, become  valuable  as  fertilizers.  Both  humus  and  peat  ab- 
sorb water  with  avidity,  and  retain  it  with  tenacity.  It  is  partly 
on  this  account  that  vegetable  mold,  when  mixed  with  other  soils, 
tends  to  impart  fertility  by  retaining  moisture  within  the  reach  of 
vegetation. 

17.  The  term  Loam  is  attached  to  a  class  of  soils  composed  of 
different  earthy  materials  of  dissimilar  particles,  not  easily  ductile, 
readily  diffused  when  thrown  into  water,  and  easily  penetrated  by 
the  roots  of  trees  and  other  plants.     A  mixture  of  humus  renders  it 
porous  and  fertile,  and  in  a  forest,  this  fertility  tends  constantly  to 
increase,  and  hence  the  growth  of  trees  is  one  of  the  best  means  for 
restoring  exhausted  soils. 

18.  The  soil  has  an  influence  upon  the  growth  of  trees  in  two 
ways :  it  gives  them  support,  and  it  furnishes  them  with  nourishment. 
In  order  to  give  support,  the  soil  should  be  permeable  by  the  roots, 
without  being  too  tenacious  to  resist  their  extension,  nor  too  light  to 
hold  them.     In  nursery  plantations,  the  proper  qualities  may  be  se- 
cured by  artificial  mixture  of  materials,  but  except  in  a  very  small 
degree,  we  can  not  modify  them,  and  must  seek  to  improve  by  the 
choice  of  species,  the  conditions  as  we  find  them. 

19.  As  the  roots  of  trees  penetrate  much  deeper  into  the  soil  than 
those  of  agricultural  plants,  the  welfare  of  woodlands  often  depends 
much  upon  the  depth  and  character  of  the  sub-soil,  as  is  observed 
in  the  "Landes"  of  south-western  France,  where  a  vigorous  and 
profitable  growth  of  trees  is  obtained  upon  lands  that  are  almost 
utterly  barren  for  cultivation  in  farm  crops.     In  other  cases,  as  in 
flat  limestone  districts,  the  surface  soil  may  be  too  thin  for  cultiva- 
tion, while  in  the  fissures  there  is  sufficient  soil  for  supplying  the  roots 
of  trees.    These  roots,  when  they  decay,  besides  leaving  the  organic 
material  of  which  they  were  composed,  also  leave  open  passages 
penetrating  deeply  into  the  soil,  and  affording  opportunities  for 
drainage.     These  may  become  filled  in  with  mold  from  the  surface, 
and  thus  they  in  some  degree  assist  in  rendering  the  soil  fertile  to  a 
greater  depth  than  would  be  possible  from  the  simple  deposit  of  or- 
ganic materials  upon  the  surface. 


6  Classification  of  Soils. 

/VJ20.  The  state  of  division  of  the  soil,  as  to  whether  coarse  or  fine, 
has  also  au  important  influence,  especially  with  reference  to  its  per- 
meability by  water,  its  drainage,  and  the  like.  Upon  these  proper- 
ties, and  the  organic  materials,  in  connection  with  the  local  climate, 
the  fertility  of  a  given  soil  may  be  said  to  depend. 

21.  It  matters  not  what  the  chemical  or  physical  properties  of  the 
soil  may  be,  it  will  remain  unproductive  unless  there  be  seasonable 
and  sufficient  rains,  or  their  equivalent  supplied  by  irrigation,  and 
unless  the  conditions  of  temperature  be  consistent  with  vegetable 
growth. 

22.  Although  soils  present  infinite  variety  in  their  constituent 
parts,  they  may  be  classed  under  four  principal  divisions,  viz.:  si- 
liceous, calcareous,  argillaceous,  and  alkaline. 

23.  In  siliceous  soils,  the  principal  constituent  is  gravel  or  sand, 
composed  of  silex  or  quartz,  more  or  less  finely  divided,  and  nearly 
or  quite  destitute  of  the  power  of  absorbing  of  retaining  water,  un- 
less underlaid  by  a  retentive  sub-soil,  or  unless  it  is  but  moderately 
above  the  level  of  a  standing  water,  from  which,  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion, its  moisture  may  be  drawn. 

24.  In  calcareous  soils,  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  found,  either  from 
the  decomposition  of  limestones,  or  from  marls  of  more  recent  or- 
ganic origin.     Such  soils  have  the  property  of  absorbing  and  retain- 
ing moisture  in  a  high  degree,  but,  although  saturated  they  do  not 
become  impenetrable  to  the  air,  and  when  turned  up  and  exposed 
to  its  action  they  fall  to  dust,  and  this  the  more  readily  when  as- 
sisted by  frost.     They  will  effervesce  when  thrown   into  acids,  and 
this  affords  a  convenient,  but  not  absolute  test. 

25.  In  argillaceous  soils,  the  silicate  of  alumina,  in  the  form  of  clay, 
forms  the  principal  ingredient.     These  soils  have  a  strong  affinity 
for  water,  and  hold  it  with  great  tenacity  ;    yet,  when  exposed  to 
solar  heat,  they  crack  into  deep  fissures  in  times  of  drouth.     The 
water  that  falls  upon  clay  soils  does  not  penetrate,  and  they  often  af- 
ford much  resistance  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

2G.  In  alkaline  soils,  the  soluble  salts  of  soda  are  in  excess.  Where 
these  soils  occur,  there  is  a  noted  deficiency  in  the  rain  fall,  and  a 
marked  sterility  from  this  cause,  for  the  excess  of  alkali  appears 
principally  due  to  the  want  of  moisture  for  dissolving  it  out  and  car- 
rying it  away.  When  such  soils  are  irrigated,  they  become  fertile, 
and  improve  as  the  excess  of  alkali  is  reduced.  A  lime-like  deposit 


Characteristics  of  Soils.  7 

is  found  in  hollow  places  where  this  soil  prevails,  and  the  sage-bush 
(Artemisia  tridentata)  and  grease-wood  (Sarcobatus  vermiculatus)  form 
the  principal  vegetation. 

27.  Although  none  of  these  soils  can  alone  be  called  fertile,  their 
proper  mixture,  and  especially  of  the  first  three,  with  humus,  af- 
fords conditions  highly  favorable  to  success. 

28.  Besides  the  qualities  resulting  from  their  chemical  composi- 
tion, and  their  relations  to  moisture,  soils  differ  greatly  in  their  ca- 
pacity for  absorbing,  retaining,  and  radiating  heat.     A  soil  covered 
with  siliceous  pebbles  retains  the  heat  better  than  fine  sand,  and 
hence  it  is  one  of  the  circumstances  that  favor  the  growth  of  the 
vine.     In  the  wine  districts  of  France,  differences  in  the  time  of 
maturing  the  fruit  have  been  traced  directly  to  this  cause.    A  sandy 
soil  radiates  heat  very  readily  in  clear  summer  nights,  and  frosts  in- 
jurious to  vegetation  are  more  apt  to  occur  upon  these  soils,  where 
exposed. 

29.  The  color  of  a  soil  has  much  effect  in  determining  absorption 
of  solar  heat.     If  dark  colored,  it  becomes  warm  sooner  and  to  a 
greater  depth  and  degree  than  if  light. 

30.  The  character  of  the  underlying  rock  itself  has  also  its  influ- 
ence upon  the  growth  of  plants  and  trees.     If  siliceous  and  solid, 
their  roots  get  no  nourishment  and  no  hold.     If  friable  and  com- 
posed of  mineral  elements  that  may  be  taken   up  in  solution  by  the 
roots,  their  fibers  will  insinuate  themselves  into  the  fissures  and  as- 
sist the  disintegration,  especially  where  moisture   is   present,  and 
where  the  frost  can  act.     This  operation  takes  place  more  readily 
where  the  rock  is  stratified  in  thin  layers  that  are  highly  inclined. 

31.  It  is  a  fact  familiar  to  geologists  that  certain  forms  of  vege- 
tation, and  especially  of  trees,  are  characteristic  of  the  rock  forma- 
tion that  underlies  them.     We  have  examples  of  this  in  shales  rich 
with  potash,  that  are  congenial  to  the  elms.     A  limestone  soil  is 
favorable  to  the  maples  but  not  to  the  pines,  while  the  latter  flour- 
ish best  on  siliceous  soils,  if  suitably  mixed  with  other  ingredients. 
A  line  of  outcrop  of  some  rock  formation  upon  a  hillside  may  be 
made  known  in  some  cases  conspicuously  by  the  color  of  the  foliage 
of  the  trees  that  grow  upon  it,  especially  when  they  are  colored  in 
autumn  or  remain  green  in  winter. 

jT  32.  The  soil  upon  a  sloping  surface  is  generally  deeper,  more  hu- 
Ohid,  and  richer  near  the  foot,  and  tends  gradually  to  become  thin, 


8  Of  the  preparation  of  Soils. 

dry,  and  sterile  toward  the  top.  These  differences  become  greater 
as  the  inclination  is  more  steep.  Upon  such  slopes,  it  becomes 
highly  important  that  the  surface  should  be  covered  with  vegetation 
arid  consolidated  by  its  roots.  There  is  no  growth  so  favorable  for 
this  purpose  as  that  of  trees,  and  elsewhere  we  will  notice  the  disas- 
trous results  that  have  followed  from  their  clearing  off  upon  steep 
mountain  sides.  In  some  cases,  the  damage  is  beyond  remedy, 
while  in  others  it  may  be  arrested  and  utility  restored. 

Of  the  preparation  of  the  Soil  for  sowing  or  planting  Forest  Trees. 

33.  In  preparing  land  for  a  grove  or  woodland,  the  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  mellowed  by  previous  working  or  cultivation.     Upon 
new  prairie  land  there  is  but  little  chance  of  success  in  starting  a 
successful  growth  of  trees  until  the  sod  has  been  turned  over  and 
thoroughly  rotted.     This  can  best  be  done  by  cultivating  at  least 
one  or  two  years  previously  with  some  farm  crop. 

34.  The  first  breaking  up  of  the  sod  can  only  be  done  to  advan- 
tage in  the  season  when  vegetation  is  most  active,  and  it  varies 
somewhat  in  different  years  and  in  different  localities.     It  may  be 
generally  said  to  last  through  the  month  of  June,  and  it  sometimes 
may  continue  longer.     Toward  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  in 
autumn,  the  soil  is  too  dry  and  hard  for  breaking  up,  and  the  herb- 
age does  not  so  readily  decompose.    The  first  furrows  must  be  broad 
and  thin.     The  subsequent  plowing  should  be  deeper,  and  the  soil 
should  be  rendered  perfectly  mellow  by  harrowing. 

35.  For  windbreaks  and  hedges,  this  preliminary  work  may  be  in 
the  line  of  proposed  planting,  and  at  least  four  feet  wider  than  the 
intended  borders. 

36.  In  the  planting  of  trees  for  avenues,  the  soil  near  the  surface, 
which  is  generally  more  fertile,  should  be  placed  by  itself,  and  this 
should  be  the  first  that  is  used  in  covering  the  roots.     In  hard  clay 
soils,  there  is  an  advantage  in  preparing  the  holes  in  autumn,  and 
leaving  them  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  the  frost  through  the  win- 
ter, in  readiness  for  the  next  spring. 

37.  It  is  sometimes  necessary,  and  often  advantageous,  to  fertilize 
at  the  time  of  planting,  and  the  best  material  that  can   be  used  is 
well-rotted  leaf-mold  from  the  woods.     It  may  be  first  mixed  with 
the  soil  that  is  spread  next  to  the  roots.     Where  stable  manure  is 
used,  it  should  be  placed  near,  but  not  in  contact  with  the  roots,  or  it 


Slope  and  Aspect. — Northern  and  Eastern  Aspects.       9 

should  be  used  as  a  top-dressing.  In  the  common  practice  of  for- 
estry, and  at  present  prices  of  labor  and  of  timber,  we  can  not  usu- 
ally do  more  than  to  sow  or  plant  the  species  that  appear  to  be  best 
suited  to  the  conditions,  and  we  can  only  fertilize  in  nurseries  and 
special  plantations.  It  is  not  improbable  that  methods  of  lertiliza- 
tion  upon  an  extensive  scale  may  hereafter  be  employed  in  forest 
planting,  and  with  profitable  results. 

Of  the  Slope  and  Aspect  of  Surface,  and  their  Effect  upon  Tree  Growth. 

38.  The  slope  of  a  surface  is  sometimes  mentioned  in  degrees  of 
the  angle  that  it  rises  above  the  level.    It  may  be  called  a  gentle  slope, 
if  under  10°;  somewhat  steep,  if  from  10°  to  20°;  steep,  if  from  20° 
to  34°;  and  very  steep,  if  from  35°  to  45°. 

39.  The  aspect  or  direction  of  a  slope  is  found  to  have  a  percep- 
tible, and  often  a  notable  influence  upon  tree  growth,  and  this  effect 
is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  surface.     Upon  isolated 
swells  of  land  and  small  hills,  it  might  be  scarcely  noticed,  but  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  mountain  ranges,  or  in  mountain  valleys,  it 
may  be  very  great. 

40.  A  northern  aspect  receives  no  full  sunlight,  or  its  rays  fall 
obliquely  in  the  morning  or  toward  evening,  according  to  the  angle 
of  elevation.     The  winds  are  colder  and  dryer,  but  in  the  growing 
season   generally  not   strong.     The  soil  retains  moisture,  and  the 
growth  is  often  rapid.    The  trees  retain  their  regular  shape,  and  the 
wood  is  softer,  not  as  strong,  but  generally  well  adapted  to  manu- 
facture.    As  vegetation  is  a  little  delayed,  the  spring  frosts  are  not 
so  apt  to  do  harm,  but  from  the  late  and  imperfect  hardening  of  the 
new  wood,  the  frosts  of  winter  may  do  injury.    As  the  snows  lie  longer 
on  these  slopes,  the  forests  are   benefited  by  their  delaying  the 
growth  in  the  first  uncertain  warm  days  of  spring,  and  by  the  moist- 
ure that  they  retain.     The  starting  of  forests  by  seeding  is  more 
easily  secured  on  a  north  slope  than  any  other,  and  it  is  only  upon  this 
slope  that  forest-tree  seeds  are  sown  upon  the  damp  snows  in  start- 
ing mountain  forests. 

41.  An  eastern  aspect  receives  the  sun  in  the  cool  morning  hours, 
when  the  temperature  and  light  are  moderate.     The  winds  in  our 
Atlantic  States  are  often  damp,  especially  in  winter.     The  soil  re- 
tains its  moisture  fairly.     Timber  grows  well,  and  acquires  medium 
qualities  that  adapt  it  to  the  greatest  variety  of  uses. 


10  Southern  and  Western  Aspects. 

42.  A  soutfiem  aspect  receives  both  the  heat  and  light  with  great- 
est intensity,  and  is  more  liable  to  winds  and  storms,  and  the  soil  to 
erosion  from  rains,  than  any  other.  The  trees,  on  the  whole,  are  of 
slower  growth,  owing  to  deficient  moisture,  and  are  less  regular  in 
form,  but  the  wood  is  firm,  heavy,  and  strong,  well  adapted  to  all 
uses  where  these  qualities  are  required.  Seeding  can  seldom  be  se- 
cured on  a  steep  southern  aspect  in  a  warm,  dry  climate,  and  trees 
must  be  set  from  nurseries  and  attended  with  greater  care.  The 
south  side  of  a  mountain  is  much  more  likely  to  be  bare  than  any 
k>ther,  every  thing  else  being  equal. 

>  43.  A  western  aspect  receives  the  sun  obliquely,  but  in  the  warm- 
est part  of  the  day,  and  in  our  Western  States,  vegetation  is  most 
exposed  on  these  slopes  to  drying  winds.  The  soil  is  apt  to  become 
dry,  and  timber  is  therefore  of  slower  growth  and  less  regular  in 
form,  but  in  the  main  good. 

44.  These  differences  from  aspect  are  more  noticeable  in  elevated 
regions  than  in  low  grounds,  and  they  depend  in  degree  more  or  less 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  local  climatic  influences  that  may 
determine  the  direction  of  the  surface  winds,  or  otherwise  affect  the 
location. 

45.  The  degree  of  inclination  has  also  a  notable  influence  upon 
vegetation,  and  on  the  action  of  rains  upon  the  surface.     If  less 
than  one  in  six,  the  conditions  are  generally  good.     From  this  to 
one  in  three,  agricultural  cultivation  becomes  difficult,  and  the  sur- 
face is  liable  to  wash  ;  still,  the  roots  of  trees  can  find  a  hold,  and, 
if  they  can  get  deep  into  the  soil,  forests  will   prosper.     At  still 
greater  angles,  cultivation  becomes  difficult  without  terracing,  and 
the  dangers  from  erosion   become   greater.     Upon   such   extreme 
slopes,  pasturage  is  apt  to  cause  great  injuries  by  destroying  the 
herbage  and  allowing  the  soil  to  wash  into  the  valleys.     The  true 
policy  should  be  to  keep  them  covered  with  woodlands,  if  possible, 
and  to  clear  by  selection,  never  exposing  the  whole  surface  at  once. 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF    CLIMATE   AND   METEOROLOGICAL  INFLUENCES. 

46.  We  understand  by  climate,  the  atmospheric  conditions  of  a 
given  region,  resulting  from  its  latitude,  elevation,  temperature, 


The  Atmosphere  and  its  Elements.  11 

humidity,  amount  and  distribution  of  its  rains,  character  and  force 
of  the  winds,  intensity  of  light,  and  other  general  or  local  causes. 

The  Atmosphere  and  its  Elements. 

47.  The  atmosphere  from  which  the  trees,  through  their  foliage, 
derive  a  part  of  their  aliment,  and  to  which  they  return  certain 
gaseous  elements  in  the  process  of  growth,  consists  of  about  one 
part  of  oxygen  to  four  parts  of  nitrogen  by  volume.      It  always 
contains,  besides  these,  a  nearly  constant   proportion   of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  a  variable  amount  of  aqueous  vapor. 

48.  Oxygen.     This  gas  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of  all  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  to  combustion,  respiration,  fermentation,  and 
many  other  processes  of  nature.     It  has  a  wride  range  of  affinities, 
and  forms  a  part  of  all  organic  and  most  mineral  compounds.     It 
is  absorbed  or  disengaged  in  various  operations  of  tree-growth,  and, 
under  certain  conditions,  it  hastens  decay. 

49.  Nitrogen.     This  gas  has  a  comparatively  small  range  of  affini- 
ties, and  in  the  air  appears  to  dilute  and  moderate  the  action  of 
oxygen.     Of  itself,  it  does  not  sustain  life.     It  forms  a  part  of 
some  vegetables  and  of  all  animals,  and,  combined  with  hydrogen  in 
the  proportion  of  1  to  3  (NH3),  it  forms  ammonia,  which  acts  an 
important  part  in  the  vegetation  of  trees,  as  well  as  of  the  culti- 
vated grains. 

50.  Carbonic  Acid  Gas.     This  is  a  compound  made  up  of  2  atoms 
of  oxygen  to  1  of  carbon  (CO2,  or  72.73  of  oxygen  to  27.27  of 
carbon  by  weight).     It  has  been  estimated  that  this  gas  forms  one 
thousandth  part  of  the  atmosphere,  but  recent  experiments  show  that 
the  proportion  is  less,  ranging  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  ten- 
thousand  ths,  or  even  less.     It  is  very  uniform,  yet  is  slightly  varied 
by  local  influences,  being  increased  by  combustion,  respiration,  and 
other  causes. 

51.  It  is  from  carbonic  acid  gas,  either  in  the  air  or  in  the  water 
taken  up  by  the  roots,  that  trees  obtain  the  carbon  that  makes  their 
principal  bulk.     This  gas  was  probably  more  abundant  in  former 
times,  as  in  the  carboniferous  period,  since  mineral  coals  are  largely 
made  up  of  carbon.     It  also  forms  a  part  of  all   limestones   and 
marls,  and  of  many  minerals  and  ores.     There  is  no  evidence  that 
the  proportion  in  the  air  has  changed  within  the  period  of  human 
history. 


12     Aqueous  Vapor. — Dew  Point. — Absolute  Humidity. 

52.  Aqueous  Vapor.  The  proportion  of  watery  vapor  in  the  air 
has  a  most  important  influence  upon  tree  growth,  and  where  the 
amount  is  small,  their  cultivation  becomes  difficult  or  impossible. 

53»  Water,  when  exposed,  will  slowly  evaporate,  the  rate  being 
greater  at  a  high  temperature  and  in  a  dry  air.  It  is  still  greater 
when  there  is  a  wind  passing  over  the  surface,  carrying  off  the  va- 
por and  bringing  dry  air  in  its  place. 

54.  Aqueous  vapor  is  always  present  in  the  air,  although  it  may 
be  imperceptible  to  our  senses.     There  is,  however,  a  limit,  above 
which  the  excess  becomes  visible  as  fog  or  cloud,  and  falls  as  dew  or 
rain.     If  the  temperature  falls  below  the  freezing  point,  the  dew  be- 
comes hoar  frosty  and  the  rain  becomes  snow. 

55.  The  degree  of  temperature  at  which  condensation  begins  is 
called  the  dew  point.    It  may  be  ascertained  by  cooling  down  water 
in  a  bright  and  thin  metallic  cup  until  dew  begins  to  form  on  the 
outside. 

56.  The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  ascertained  by  the 
psychrometer,  which  consists  of  two  similar  thermometers  set  a  few 
inches  apart,  one  of  them  having  the  bulb  covered  with  white  mus- 
lin cloth,  which  is  wet  before  an  observation  is  taken.     The  wet 
bulb  is  gently  fanned  till  the  temperature  goes  down  to  a  stationary 
point,  and  then  both  thermometers  are  read.     By  the  aid  of  tables 
that  have  been  computed  for  this  purpose,  we  may  very  easily  ob- 
tain from  the  temperature  of  the  dry  bulb  instrument,  and  the  dif- 
ference between  that  and  the  wet  bulb,  two  separate  statements  con- 
cerning the  moisture  present  in  the  air,  viz.:  the  absolute  and  the 
relative  humidity. 

57.  The  Absolute  Humidity  is  the  elastic  force  or  tension  of  the 
vapor,  as  would  be  shown  in  its  raising  a  column  of  mercury  in  a 
guage,  and  is  usually  given  in  decimal  parts  of  an  English  iuch. 
With  a  given  difference  between  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers, 
it  increases  with  the  temperature,  being  greatest  when  the  weather 
is  warmest,  as  shown  by  Diagram  1.     We  see,  for  example,  that  at 
90°  it  is  1.3  inches,  the  difference  betwreen  thermometers  being  10°, 
while  it  is  but  0.3  at  55°,  and  but  a  little  over  0.1  at  40°.     The 
rate  gains  rapidly  at  high  temperatures,  and  above  the  boiling  point 
it  becomes  the  power  of  steam. 

58.  As  observed  in  a  very  warm  atmosphere,  there  may  be  an 
abundance  of  moisture  present  in  the  air  and  no  rain.     At  a  fixed 


Absolute  and  Relative  Humidity. 


13 


temperature,  the  amount  is 
and  dry  bulbs  is  greatest, 
and  it  increases  as  these  dif- 
ferences become  less,  as  we 
see  by  Diagram  2,  where 
the  lines  descend  from  left 
to  right.  The  rate  of  de- 
scent is  similar  at  different 
temperatures,  as  we  see  the 
descending  lines  are  parallel, 
but  they  become  nearer  to- 
gether as  the  temperature  is 
less.  In  this  diagram,  the 
degrees  on  the  oblique  lines 
are  those  of  temperature  in 
the  open  air.  If  we  meas- 
ure the  vertical  distances  be- 
tween these  oblique  lines,  we 
would  have  a  series  of  num- 
bers increasing  at  a  gaining 
rate,  which  might  be  shown 
by  a  curve  something  like 
those  of  the  preceding  figure. 
59.  The  Relative  Humid- 
ity. This  is  the  percentage 
of  saturation,  100  being  com- 
plete saturation,  as  in  a  fog 
(when  the  air  can  hold  no 
more  moisture  in  invisible 
form),  and  0  being  com- 
plete dryness.  In  our  cli- 
mate, we  never  find  the  air 
absolutely  dry  without  arti- 
ficial means.  The  degree  of 
relative  humidity  also  de- 
pends on  the  temperature, 
and  with  a  given  distance 
between  wet  and  dry  bulbs, 
it  is  greatest  at  high  temper- 


least  when  the  difference  between  wet 


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tures, the  Difference  between  wet  and  dry  Bulbs 
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variable. 


14 


Relative  Humidity. 


atures>^The  rate  of  increase  forms  a  curve,  as  shown  in  the  diagram 

annexed,  but  increasing  in 
percentage  more  slowly  as 
the  temperature  is  high. 
These  curves  are  higher 
when  the  wet  and  dry  bulb 
thermometers  are  nearer 
alike,  and  grow  smaller  at  a 
regularly  decreasing  rate  as 
the  differences  between  in- 
struments increase. 

60.  At  all  temperatures, 
the  relative  humidity  dimin- 
ishes in  percentage  as  the 
difference  between  the  in- 
struments increases,  as  we 
see  by  the  descending  curves 
in  Figure  4,  but  not  at  uni- 

3.  Relative    Humidity    at  different   Tempera-  form    rates,    as    WC   SC6    that 
tures  the  difference  between  wet  and  dry  Bulbs     ,  ,.  _, 

being  constant.  these  lines  are  curves.     Ihe 

degrees  marked  on  these 
curves  from  0°  to  100°  are 
those  of  temperature  in  the 
open  air.1 

(1)  The  numerical  statements 
from  which  this  and  the  preced- 
ing figures  are  constructed  will 
be  found  in  a  volume  of  meteor- 
ological tables  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor Guyot,  and  published  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 
the  use  of  its  observers,  at  the 
time  when  the  former  system 
of  voluntary  meteorological  ob- 
servation was  in  operation.  The 
limits  of  this  volume  do  not  ad- 
mit of  their  insertion  in  detail, 
nor  of  a  statement  of  the 

principles  upon  which  thev  are 

4.  Relative  Humidity  at  fixed  Temperatures,    ,         . 
the  difference  between "wet  and  dry  Bulbs  being    tniseci. 
variable. 


Humidity:  Effect  of  Heat  upon  Volume  of  Air.         15 

61.  The  absolute  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  much  greatest  in 
summer,  reaching  its  maxi- 
mum iu  July  or  August  (0.5 
to  0.6  inches),  and  its  mini- 
mum in  December  (0.1  or  a 
little  higher).  The  relative 
humidity  follows  a  different 
law,  and  through  a  much 
less  range.  It  ranges  from 
75  to  80  per  cent  in  winter 
in  the  Atlantic  States,  de- 
scends to  the  lowest  (about 
65  per  cent,  on  the  general 
average)  in  May,  rises  to 
about  70  to  75  in  the  sum- 
mer months,  and  a  little 
higher  in  winter.  These 
ranges  of  absolute  and  rela- 
from 


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5.  Absolute  Humidity  at  three  American  Sta- 
tions through  the  several  Months,  for  a  Series  of 

the  mean  of  many  years'  ob- Years- 
servation  at  the  Magnetic 
and  Meteorological  Observa- 
tory at  Toronto,  in  Canada, 
and  at  the  State  Agricult- 
ural Colleges  at  Orono,  in 
Maine,  and  at  Lansing,  in 
Michigan,  are  shown  by  the 
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Effects  of  Heat  and  of  Cold 
upon  the  Volume  of  Air. 

62.  It  is  a  rule  that  heat 
tends  to  expand  all  bodies, 
whether  solid,  liquid,  or  gas- 
eous, and  that  cooling  tends 
to  reduce  their  volume. 

63.  When  any  substance 

expands,  it  absorbs   "latent     6.  Relative  Humidity  at. three  American  Sta- 
i       ,  ?j         j    i  .,        tions  through  the  several  Months,  for  a  Series  of 

heat,    and  becomes  colder.  Years. 


16  Dew  Point :  Fogs  and  Clouds. 

Condensation  has  the  opposite  effect,  and  the  substance  condensed 
becomes  warm.  It  is  by  many  astronomers  believed  that  the  sun's 
heat  is  caused  by  the  condensation  of  gases  going  on  upon  or  within 
its  surface.  Evaporation,  or  the  passing  qf  a  liquid  into  gaseous 
form,  is  notably  an  expanding,  and  consequently  a  cooling  process. 
The  leaves  of  trees  in  the  growing  season  evaporate  abundantly, 
and  hence  the  coolness  of  groves  in  summer.  The  condensation  of 
vapors  in  the  form  of  dew  or  rain,  is  always  the  effect  of  a  cooling 
down  of  the  atmosphere  to  below  the  Dew  Point  [§  55],  and  is  al- 
ways attended  with  a  diminution  in  the  previous  volume  of  the  air 
from  which  it  forms. 

64.  Dew,  is  the  moisture  deposited  from  the  air  when  cooled  at 
night  by  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth's  surface.    It  can  only 
occur  when  the  temperature  is  reduced  to  the  "dew  point,"  and  is 
greatest  in  still  clear  nights.     When  covered  with  clouds,  the  radi- 
ations of  heat  are  returned  to  the  earth.     The  same  effect  is  often 
seen  immediately  under  a  tree,  which  will  remain   dry,  while  all 
around  it  the  dew  on  the  grass  may  be  heavy.     This  shows  that  the 
air  under  the  tree  has  been  a  little  warmer  than  in  the  open  space 
around  it,  and  that  the  general  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  air  is 
relatively  high. 

65.  On  the  contrary,  we  sometimes  see  the  grass,  boards,  etc., 
under  a  tree  wet  with  the  dew,  when  the  ground  around  it  is  dry. 
This  occurs  from  the  greater  humidity  of  the  air  under  the  tree,  in 
consequence  of  the  evaporation  of  its  foliage,  and  is  seen  only  in 
a  calm  night,  when  the  general  humidity  of  the  air  is  less.     These 
effects  are  sometimes  seen  where  a  plank  walk  extends  along  under 
an  avenue  of  large  trees  standing  widely  apart.     The  open  portions 
may  be  white  with  hoar-frost  (frozen  dew),  while  the  parts  covered 
by  the  trees  are  bare,  or  the  sheltered  portions  may  be  wet,  as  if 
rained  upon,  while  the  open  spaces  are  dry. 

66.  Fogs  and  Clouds,  are  formed  only  when  the  air  is  at  or  below 
the  dew  point,  showing  that  it  can  hold  the  moisture  no  longer, 
and  the  excess  becomes  visible,  and  may,  in  certain  cases,  descend 
as  rain.     They  show  a  reduced  temperature,  and  common  summer 
clouds  are  often  formed  by  the  unequal  heating  of  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface  by  the  sun. 

67.  The  air  in  .contact  with  these  heated  portions  expands,  and, 
becoming  lighter,  rises — the  air  from  surrounding  spaces  coming  in 


Rains :  Effect  of  Woodlands  Stated.  17 

to  supply  its  place.  An  upward  current  is  thus  formed,  and  the  air 
rising  and  cooling  finally  comes  to  the  dew  point,  and  the  moisture 
becomes  visible  as  cloud.  A  column  of  smoke  from  a  burning 
clearing  will  sometimes  thus  form  a  cloud,  and  may  cause  rain. 

68.  A  country  interspersed  with  groves  of  trees,  presents  contrasts 
in  heating  tendencies  favorable  to  the  formation  of  these  upward 
currents  of  the  air.     Broad  areas  of  cloud  passing  over  a  great  ex- 
tent of  country,  and  usually  accompanied  by  a  low  barometer,  are 
due  to  more  general  causes,  but  always  show  a  reduction  of  temper- 
ature in  the  region  where  they  form. 

69.  Rains,  are  caused  by  a  condensation  of  moisture  from  cooling 
below  the  dew  point.     The  success  of  forest  growth  depends  largely 
upon  their  amount  and  their  seasonable  distribution  throughout  the 
year,  and  especially  their  occurrence  when  vegetation  is  most  active, 
and  when  the  new  layer  of  wood  for  the  season  is  forming. 

70.  A  rain  guage  on  the  ground  will  collect  in  a  year  more  rain 
than  one  on  the  roof  of  a  house,  and  the  latter  more  than  one  on  a 
high  tower.     Currents  of  air  may  tend  to  cause  this  difference. in 
part,  but  it  seems  to  show  that  the  rain-drops  gather  in  size  as  they 
descend. 

71.  On  the  contrary,  in  a  dry  time,  we  sometimes  see  filaments 
of  rain  descending  from  a  cloud,  which  dry  up  and  disappear  in  the 
warm  air  below  without  reaching  the  ground.     When  such  clouds 
pass  over  large  bodies  of  woodland,  where  the  temperature  is  cooler 
and  the  air  more  moist,  these  filaments  extend  down  and  afford  a 
shower  of  rain,  but  dry  up  again  as  they  come  to  the  warm  air  of 
the  fields  beyond.     Applying  these  principles  of  humidity  and  tem- 
perature to  Forestry,  let  us  consider  what  effect  a  woodland  can  have 
upon  them : 

72.  In  the  growing  season,  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  evaporation 
going  on  from  the  foliage  of  trees,  the  moisture  being  derived  from 
the  soil.     This  evaporation  is  a  cooling  process,  and  as  it  both  in- 
creases the  amount  of  moisture,  while  it  reduces  the  temperature, 
it  tends  to  bring  the  air  to  the  dew  point ;  in  other  words,  to  the 
condition  favoring  the  formation  of  dews  and  rain.     In  the  nicely 
balanced  state  of  the  atmosphere  that  we  often  find  in  summer,  this 
change  may  sometimes  be  the  turning  point  that  decides  between 
rain  and  drouth. 


18  Effect  of  Woodlands :   Water  Supply. 

73.  It  has  been  found,  many  times,  that  where  the  trees  and 
bushes  are  cleared  away  from  large  areas  of  rocky  suriace,  the  re- 
gion begins  to  suffer  from  drouth.     The  rocks  being  heated  by  the 
sun,  remain  warm  in  the  night,  and  the  rain-clouds,  which,  in  pass- 
ing over  the  wooded  surface,  formerly  condensed  in  gentle  showers, 
now  dry  up,  upon  coming  to  the  heated  air,  and  perhaps  yield  a  co- 
pious rainfall,  over  a  better- wooded  district  beyond.     These  effects 
are  more  apparent  where  the  clearings  have  been  extended  over 
considerable  areas,  and  they  could  with  certainty  be  overcome  by 
allowing  the  rocks  to  be  again  clothed  with  a  growth  of  trees. 

74.  The  effect  of  Woodlands  upon  the  Rain  that  falls  upon  them  may 
next  be  considered.     Admitting  that  the  amount  of  rain  that  falls 
upon  the  woods  is  the  same  as  that  in  adjacent  fields,  it  is  evident 
that  a  part  would  be  intercepted  by  the  foliage,  and  in  transient 
showers  be  evaporated  from  it,  without  reaching  the  ground.     But 
the  air  within  the  woods  is  always  more  humid  in  the  growing 
season,  and  the  surface  is  always  shaded  from  the  sun  and  sheltered 
from  the  winds.     It  is  also  generally  covered  with  a  layer  of  dead 
leaves  and  litter,  so  that  the  rain  that  does  actually  reach  the  earth, 
although  it  may  be  rather  less  in  amount,  is  more  in  effect,  because 
it  is  not  readily  evaporated.     It  sinks  into  the  ground,  instead  of 
running  off  on  the  surface.     It  can  not  wear  away  the  soil  upon 
steep  slopes,  nor  form  sudden  and  destructive  floods,  as  in  a  naked 
and  treeless  region.     The  streams  rising  in  wroodlauds  may  swell 
after  a  rain,  but  more  gradually,  and  they  will  subside  again  more 
slowly.     If  they  rise  in  woodland  swamps,  they  are  scarcely  liable 
to  floods  at  any  season,  and  tend  to  an  even  flow  throughout  the 
year. 

75.  Springs  and  wells  in  a  wooded  region   have  a  much  more 
uniform  supply  of  water  than  in  the  same  region  when  cleared. 
Instances  have  often  been  observed  where  these  become  dry  upon 
clearing,  and  again  well  supplied  with  water  as  before  when  a  forest 
growth  was  restored. 

76.  These  principles  become  important  when  applied  to  the  supply 
of  water  for  cities  and  towns,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  water  in 
canals,  or  for  hydraulic  power.     The  basins  of  supply  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  kept  wooded,  and  the  rivulets  kept  shaded,  if  we  would 
avoid  failure. 

77.  In  Illinois,  and  some  other  prairie  states,  there  has  been  ob- 


Causes  of  dryer  Climate:  Atmometers. 


19 


served  a  noticeable  increase  in  the  dryness  of  the  climate  since  set- 
tlement first  began.  This  may  in  part  be  attributed  to  the  clearing 
away  of  the  belts  of  native  timber  along  the  streams.  The  roots 
of  these  trees  formerly  kept^he  channel  at  a  higher  level,  and  in 
some  cases  formed  extensive  swamps.  The  beds  of  these  streams 
are  now  lower,  and  they  drain'  off  the  water  to  a  greater  depth. 
The  effect  is  shown  in  the  failure  of  water  in  the  wells,  and  in  the 
more  frequent  occurrence  of  drouth,  to  the  injury  of  agriculture. 

78.  There  is  nothing  that  would  more  effectually  check  this  tend- 
ency to  deepening  of  channels  than  the  planting  of  willows  along 
the  sides,  and  it  might  eventually  in  some  degree  restore  what  has 
been  lost  by  raising  them  to  a  higher  level. 

79.  The  rate  of  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  water  and  from 
soils  is  found  to  be  much  more  in  the  open  fields  than  in  woodlands, 
and  the  difference  is  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

80.  Instruments  for  measuring  the    evaporation   are   sometimes 
called  "  atmometers,"  and  they  are  of  various  forms.     We  here  pre- 
sent a  section   of  one   in- 
vented   by   Professor    La-^ 

mont,  of  the  Munich  O 
servatory.  It  consists  of 
basin  of  water,/,  g,  with 
narrow  opening  at  A,  com- 
municating with  a  reservoir 
in  an  adjacent  cylinder. 
Into  the  latter  a  plunger 
may  be  pressed  down  or 
raised  by  the  screw,  S.  It 
works  through  an  air-tight 
collar,  a,  d,  and  by  this 
means  the  water,  by  press- 
ure or  suction,  may  be  ad- 
justed in  the  open  basin. 
When  left  for  observation, 
the  water  is  drawn  down 
till  it  is  just  visible  at  A, 
and  the  scale,  s,  s,  is  ad- 
justed to  a  zero  point  at  h. 

It    is    then     forced     Up    till  7.  Lament's  Atmometer. 


20          Measurement  of  Evaporation  and  Percolation. 


level  with  a  line,  N,  M,  and  left,  When  next  observed,  the  water 
is  drawn  down  to  A,  and  the  scale  will  show  how  much  has  been 
wasted  by  evaporation.  More  water  is  added,  and  the  scale  is 
again  set, 

81.  By  a  simpler  plan,  known  as  Piche's  evaporator,  a  plain  grad- 
uated glass  tube,  with  its  lower  end  open  and  ground  flat,  is  tilled 
with  water.    A  disc  of  paper,  first  wet,  is  applied.    It  is  then  turned, 
with  the  closed  end  up,  and  the  paper  is  found  to  adhere  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure.     It  continues  wet,  and  by  evaporation  the  water 
wastes  away,  the  amount  of  loss  be'ng  shown  on  the  scale. 

82.  An  open  cylindrical  dish  of  water  may  be  used,  the  'depth 
being  measured  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  observation,  and 
the  loss  supplied  from  time  to  time.     The  measurement  may  be 
made  vertically   by  a  scale,  or  by  volume  in  a  graduated  meas- 
uring cup,  or  by  weighing.     It  is  necessary  to  cover  with  a  wire 
screen,  to  prevent  birds  from  bathing  in  it. 

83.  By  an  instrument  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  the  evapora- 

tion from  soils,  either 
naked  or  covered  with 
grass,  litter,  or  herb- 
age, or  by  small  grow- 
ing trees,  may  be  meas- 
ured. The  zinc-lined 
box,  A,  is  connected 
with  a  reservoir  of 
water,  C,  through  a 
valve,  E,  so  as  to  keep 
wet  up  to  a  certain 
8.  Instrument  for  Measuring  the  Evaporation  from  level.  The  Water  may 
Soils-  be  drawn  off  from  the 

faucet.     The  amount  supplied  from  time  to  time  shows  the  rate  of 

evaporation. 

84.  The  percolation  of  water  through    soils   is   measured  by  a 
Lysimeter.     It  consists  of  a  vessel  of  known  area  at  the  surface,  A, 
set  in  the  ground,  and  the  surface  either  clearer  covered  with  litter, 
herbage,  etc.     The  rains  that  fall  on  the  surface  filter  down  to  the 
tube,  C,  and  are  measured  in  the  receiver,  D. 


Effect  of  Forests  upon  Rainfall  and  Temperature.      21 


9.  Lysi meter. 


Relation  between  the  Rainfall  and  the  Native  Forests. 

85.  As  a  general  rule,  we  find  our  native  forests  more  dense  in 
proportion  as  the  rainfall  is  greatest,  as 

we  see  proved  upon  the  Pacific  Coast, 
and  in  the  region  south  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior. They  become  less  as  the  rains 
diminish,  and  as  we  approach  the  great 
plains,  the  native  timber  is  found  only 
along  the  borders  of  the  rivers  and 
smaller  streams,  and  finally  it  disap- 
pears altogether.  Asa  rule,  where  the 
amount  of  rain  is  less  than  twenty 
inches  in  a  year,  and  this  chiefly  in 
winter,  the  growth  of  trees  becomes 
difficult,  and  with  many  species  impos- 
sible. 

86.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe 

that  the  capacity  for  cultivation  in  a  dry  region  may  be  increased 
by  tree-planting,  and  gradually  extended  to  a  degree  that  would  not 
be  possible  to  secure  at  first. 


Effect  of  Woodlands  upon  the  Temperature  of  the  Air  and  the 

Earth. 

87.  It  is  evident  to  the  senses  that  the  air  in  woodlands 
is  cooler  than  in  the  open  fields  in  summer  and  warmer 
in  winter,  although  the  actual  difference  in  the  latter  is 
slight.  When  we  measure  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  we 
find  the  effect  of  woodlands  much  greater,  the  difference 
between  winter  and  summer  being  less  in  the  woods  than 
in  the  fields,  and  less  at  greater  depths  than  at  the  surface. 
This  difference  is  greatest  in  summer,  when  vegetation  is 
most  active.  Various  means  are  employed  to  measure 
this  temperature.  In  one,  a  thermometer  with  a  thick 
glass  bulb  (invented  by  Lamont,  of  Munich),  is  left  to 
various  depths,  and  when  drawn  up  for  observation  it  does 
not  quickly  change  before  reading.  In  other  cases,  long- 
stemmed  instruments  are  permanently  buried  at  different 
depths,  with  the  scales  above  the  surface. 


22  The  Winds:  Agency  of  Water  in  Vegetation. 

88.  The  Winds.     In  considering  atmospheric  agencies,  the  drying 
effects  of  the  winds  should  be  noticed,  as  liable  to  be  greatly  in- 
cr<!ased  by  the  clearing  of  lands,  and  to  be  lessened  by  planting, 
These  plantations,  in  order  to  serve  most  effectually  as  wind-breaks, 
should  extend  across  the  direction  from  whence  the  prevailing  winds 
blow.     In  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi,  the  dry  and  warm 
winds,  most  injurious  to  vegetation,  come  from  the  south-west,  and 
it  is  against  these  that  we  should  chiefly  guard. 

89.  The  winter  storms  of  greatest  violence,  known  in  the  North- 
western States  as  "  blizzards,"  come  from  the  north-west.     There  can 
be  no  doubt  but  that  their  local  effects  may  be  reduced,  and  to  some 
extent  their  occurrence  diminished  by  the  plantations  of  groves  of 
trees. 

90.  In  some  countries  exposed  to  prevailing  ocean  winds,  there 
will  be  ample  rainfall  under  any  condition,  and  woodlands  can  have 
but  little  effect;  for,  whether  present  or  absent,  the  humid  air  from 
the  ocean  will  precipitate  its  moisture  when  it  comes  over  the  land. 
In  Norway,  the  amount  of  rain  on  the  western  coast  is  over  80  inches 
a  year.     In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  on  the  western  coast  of 
France,  the  rains  will  be  abundant  from  these  causes,  as  they  will 
always  be  along  our  Pacific  coast.     But  these  ocean  winds  in  passing 
over  mountain  ranges  must  necessarily  be  cooled  down  to  a  degree 
much  below  the  dew  point,  and  become  dry  by  being  thus  depleted 
of  their  moisture  as  they  pass  inland. 

The  Agency  of  Water  in  Vegetation. 

91.  Whether  in  solid  form,  as  snow  or  ice,  or  as  a  liquid,  supplied 
by  rains,  dews,  or  irrigation,  or  as  a  vapor,   water  acts  an  essen- 
tial part  in  vegetation,  and  is  necessary  for  the  existence  of  all  vege- 
table life.     For  best  effect  it  should  be  seasonable  and  sufficient,  but 
not  in  excess. 

92.  As  a  general  rule,  seeds  will  not  germinate  under  water,  but 
in  some  trees  the  roots  will  bear  submergence  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  wood  of  trees  thus  exposed  is  often  softer  and  more  spongy  than 
it  would  have  been  if  grown  on  dryer  ground.     Generally,  however, 
a  sustained   overflow  of  the  surface  causes  the  death  of  the  trees 
whose   roots   are   thus   covered,  and  "beaver  meadows"  are  thus 
caused. 

93.  The  Snow  is  a  slow  conductor  of  radiant  heat,  while  it  allows 


Effects  of  Snows  and  of  Frosts.  23 

the  sun's  heat  to  pass  through  it  with  facility.  The  earth  is  thus 
covered  and  protected  from  the  intense  cold  of  winter,  the  snow  al- 
lowing it  to  be  warmed  by  the  sun's  heat,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
does  not  allow  the  warmth  of  the  earth  to  escape.  The  melting  of 
snows  takes  place  largely  from  the  under  side,  as  we  see  evidence  in 
the  vacant  spaces  around  every  object  in  the  snow  as  the  spring  ap- 
proaches. 

94.  In  forest  shade  the  snow  melts  but  slowly,  and   the  water  is 
thus  allowed  to  sink  into  the  earth,  or  run  off  gradually,  instead  of 
suddenly,  as  in  the  rains  in  an  open  country.     By  this  delay  in 
melting,  the  vegetation  is  kept  back  until  warm  weather  is  con- 
firmed and  injuries  from  spring  frosts  are  less  liable  to  happen. 

95.  In  woodlands  the  snow  does  not  drift,  and  this  effect  extends 
somewhat  into  the  adjacent  fields,   which  are  thus  kept  from  ex- 
posure to  injurious  frosts  in  winter. 

96.  In  liquid  form  the  water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots,  and  with 
it  carbonic  acid  gas  and  various  mineral  substances  in  solution,  the 
latter  supplying  the  inorganic  portions  remaining  as  ashes  when  the 
plants  are  burned.     In  its  chemical  composition  water  consists  of 
two  atoms  of  hydrogen  united  to  one  of  oxygen  (H2  O),  and  it  is 
produced  when  these  elements  are  united  by  being  burned  together. 
The  agency  of  water  will  be  further  noticed  in  connection  with  the 
functions  of  the  leaves. 

Of  the  Effects  of  Frost. 

97.  Many  species  of  trees  will  not  endure  a  freezing  temperature ; 
others  are  injured  but  not  killed  by  it,  and  others  appear  fitted  to 
endure  the  greatest  rigors  of  winter  without  injury,  yet  in  excep- 
tional cases  even  these  may  suffer  from  intense  and  prolonged  cold. 
The  winters  of  1683-4  and  1708-9  were  memorable  from  the  in- 
juries they  did   in  Europe   to  the  forest  trees,  and  in  December, 
1879,  a  severe  frost  in  France  did  immense  damage  to  young  tim- 
ber.    It  was  found  on  this  last  occasion  that  the  injury  was  greater 
where  the  sun  struck  the  trees  not  protected  by  snow ;  the  effect 
was  greater  in  valleys  than  on  high  grounds,  and  varied  much  with 
the  soil,  the  exposure,  and  the  humidity  of  the  air. 

98.  In  these  exceptional  and  fortunately  rare  cases,  the  condition 
of  the  wood  as  to  maturity  had  doubtless  much  influence,  as  the 
winter  appears  to  have  found  them  unprepared  for  its  rigors.     It 
was  afterwards  found,  that  many  trees,  supposed  to  be  dead,  still  put 


24  Effects  of  Frost :  Injuries  from  Snows. 

forth  new  buds  from  the  older  wood,  and  thus  were  able  to  show 
hopeful  signs  of  recovery. 

99.  The  injury  from  frosts  depends  more  on  the  season  than  on 
its  intensity.     A  late  spring  frost  will  kill  down  the  young  shoots 
of  conifers  that  would  endure  a  severe  winter. 

100.  Many  trees,  and  especially  oaks,  pines,  and  firs,  are  found 
cracked  into  deep  fissures  from  the  unequal  action  of  the  frost  upon 
their  woody  tissues.     Such  cracks  do  not  heal  up  or  grow  over,  but 
remain  as  a  furrow  always  visible  upon  the  outside,  and  greatly  im- 
pairing its  value  for  lumber. 

101.  A  freezing  rain  may  load  down  the  branches  of  trees  so  as 
to  break  them.     The  roots  of  young  seedling  trees  may  be  thrown 
out  of  the  ground  by  frost,  and  the  fruit-season  may  be  checked  by 
a  frost  that  kills  the  buds  or  blossoms  but  that  is  not  severe  enough 
to  injure  the  foliage ;  or  its  maturity  may  be  prevented  by  an  early 
autumnal  frost. 

102.  Trees  accustomed  to  alternately  wet  and  dry  seasons,  such 
as  conifers  from  the  Pacific  coast,  become  exceedingly  liable  to  win- 
ter-kill, especially  after  a  mild  and  damp  autumn.     A  long-continued 
period  of  very  cold  weather  in  winter  has  been  noticed  as  more 
likely  to  injure  the  growth  of  trees  than  more  intense  frost  for  a  shorter 
period. 

103.  The  effects  of  frost  are  always  to  be  feared  in  high  moun- 
tainous regions  and  in  deep  humid  valleys,  for  the  atmosphere  is  there 
always   loaded  with  vapors  that   condense  in  fogs  as  soon  as  the 
sun  is  hid.     Young  trees  bear  these  exposures  with  much  peril  until 
they  get  to  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet ;  that  is  to  say,  above 
the  ground  fogs,  or  at  least  above  the  level  at  which  these  injuries 
are  most  likely  to  happen. 

Of  ths  Injuries  from  Snows. 

104.  When  damp  snow  falls  upon  the  branches  of  forest  trees, 
and  especially  the   evergreens,  it   may  break   them   down    by  its 
weight,  especially  when  this  is  increased  by  rain,  or,  when  frozen 
on,  it  is  exposed  to  a  strong  wind.     An  instance  occurred  in  Scot- 
land, in  the  early  part  of  1879,  when  great  damage  was  done  to 
evergreen  forests,  and  to  less  extent  to  the  oak,  birch,  and  larch 
trees,  from  the  weight  of  snows. 

105.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  snow-slides  often  do  great 


Timbtr-Line. — Decline  in  Fruit  Production,  etc.        25 

injury  to  young  timber,  and  these  become  more  liable  to  occurrence 
as  the  wood  near  the  summit  is  destroyed.  The  snow  then  drifts 
over  and  forms  great  overhanging  masses  on  the  leeward  side,  which 
are  liable  to  become  detached  and  to  slide  down  into  the  valleys,  car- 
rying every  thing  before  them. 

106.  Young  seedlings  when  covered  with  the  snow  are  sometimes 
broken  down  by  its  weight,  as  it  settles  from  melting  on  the  under 
side. 

107.  The  Timber-Line  is  the  upper  limit  of  tree  growth  upon 
mountains.    Its  height  is  greatest  within  the  tropics,  and  it  descends 
as  we  go  north  or  south,  until  it  reaches  the  surface  in  the  Arctic 
zone.     It  also  decreases  as  we  approach  the  sea-coast,  and  it  is  often, 
from  local  causes,  higher  on  one  side  of  a  mountain  than  on  the 
other.     In  the  Himalayas,  this  line  is  about  11,800  feet  high.     On 
the  Alps  it  averages  6,400  feet,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  it 
varies  from  9,000  to  12,000  feet.1 

108.  In  ascending  to  the  timber-line,  no  great  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  timber  is  observed  until  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the 
limit,  when  the  trees  begin  to  appear  short  and  wide-spreading,  and 
at  last  almost  flat,  and  leaning  from  the  prevailing  winds.  .  Above 
the  line,  no  trees  whatever  are  found,  and  but  little  vegetation  of 
any  kind,  the  mountain  rising  bleak  and  barren  to  its  summit,  or 
until  it  reaches  the  eternal  snows.     This  snow  line  varies  with  the 
seasons,  and  is  in  some  years  higher  or  lower  than  in  others,  accord- 
ing as  the  prevailing  conditions  of  the  weather  may  have  varied. 

Decline  of  Fruit  Production  and  its  Cause. 

109.  It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  old  people  recall  the  memories  of 
their  youth,  when  peaches  and  other  fruits  grew  luxuriantly  and 
without  special  care,  in  regions  where  they  are  now  unknown,  or 
are  raised  only  in  favorable  seasons  and  with  extraordinary  care. 

(1)  Prof.  C.  C.  Parry,  in  Prof.  Hayden's  Report  of  1872,  gives  the  height 
of  the  timber  line  in  some  twenty  places,  some  of  them  being  as  follows: 

FEET.    /  FEET. 

Mount  Shasta,  Cal 8, 000 'Gilbert'  Peak,  Uintas 11,100 

Cascade  Range,  Or 7,000    Audobon's  Peak,  Colo 11,325 

Ward's  Peak,  Monta 8,784    Mt.  Engelmami,  Colo 11,518 

Bridger's  Peak 9,002    Gray's  Peak,  Colo . . : 11,643 

Near  ttenry's  Lake,  Idaho 9,36<5    Pike's  Peak .12,040 

Wind  Hiver  Mts 10,100    Colorado  generally 11,600  to  12,000 

Long's  Peak,  Colo 10,800 


26  Injuries  resulting  from  excessive  Clearings. 

They  will  speak  of  winters  of  uniform  but  not  extreme  cold,  and 
steady  and  long-continued  seasons  for  making  maple  sugar,  and 
other  incidents  of  farm  life,  denoting  a  regularity  in  the  return  of 
seasons,  and  a  similarity  in  their  character  that  does  not  now  exist. 

110.  In  respect  to  loss  of  fertility,  something  may  be  ascribed  to 
the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  careless  cultivation,  and  something  to 
the  drainage  of  swamps  and  the  deepening  of  water-courses.     But 
the  most  conspicuous  difference  in  the  general  condition  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  most  obvious  cause  of  this  decline,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  excessive  clearing  off  of  woodlands,  and  the  loss  of  the  equaliz- 
ing tendencies  which  their  presence  occasioned. 

The  Ruin  that  is  brought  upon  Countries  by  the  Clearing  off  of  Woodlands. 

111.  It  is  a  familiar  fact  there  are  many  regions  in  Asia  and 
Southern  Europe,  once  exceedingly  fertile  and  densely  populated, 
that  are  now  utterly  sterile  and  desolate.     The  country  bordering 
upon  the  Euphrates,  and  portions  of  Turkey,  Greece,  Egypt,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  are  now  incapable  of  cultivation  from  this  cause.  The  Hon. 
Geo.  P.  Marsh,  in  a  work  entitled  "  Man  and  Nature,"  and  a  later 
edition  entitled  "  The  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action,"  has 
devoted  a  large  space  to  the  discussion  of  this  question.     A  more 
recent  illustration   of  these   effects   is  published  in  the  principal 
French  Journal  of  Forestry,1  and,  for  comparison,  we  place  by  its 
side  a  description  of  the  same  region  only  about  fifty  years  before : 

(About  1876.)  (About  1826.) 

"The  Khanate  of  Bucharia  pre-  ".  .  .  The  finest  provinces  of 
sents  a  striking  example  of  the  con-  Tartary  remain  to  be  described,  be- 
sequences  brought  upon  a  country  by  ing  generally  known  under  the  name 
clearings.  Within  a  period  of  thirty  of  Great  Bucharia.  .  .  .  The 
years,  this  was  one  of  the  most  fertile  most  noted  and  fertile  of  all  the 
regions  of  central  Asia,  a  country  provinces  is  that  of  Sogd,  so  named 
which,  when  well  wooded  and  wat-  from  the  river  that  flews  through  it. 
ered,  was  a  terrestrial  paradise.  But  'For  eight  days,' says  Iban  Hankcl, 
within  the  last  twenty-five  years,  a  'We  may  travel  in  the  country  of 
mania  of  clearing  has  seized  upon  Sogd  and  not  be  out  of  one  delicious 
the  inhabitants,  and  all  the  great  garden.  On  every  side,  villages,  rich 
forests  have  been  cut  away,  and  the  corn-fields,  fruitful  orchards.  Conn- 
little  that  remained  was  ravaged  by  try  houses,  gardens,  meadows  inter- 

(1)  Revue  dcs  Eaux  et  Forcts,  March,  1876,  p.  93. 


Injuries  resulting  from  excessive  Clearings. 


fire  during  a  civil  war.  The  conse- 
quences were  not  long  in  following, 
and  has  transformed  this  country  into 
a  kind  of  arid  desert.  The  water- 
courses are  dried  up,  and  the  irrigat- 
ing canals  empty.  The  moving 
sands  of  the  desert,  being  no  longer 
restrained  by  barriers  of  forests,  are 
every  day  gaining  upon  the  land, 
and  will  finish  by  transforming  it 
into  a  desert  as  desolate  as  the  soli- 
tudes that  separate  it  from  Khiva." 


spersed  by  rivulets,  reservoirs  and 
canals,  present  a  most  lively  picture 
of  industry  and  happiness.  The  rich 
valley  of  Sogd  produces  so  great  an 
abundance  of  grapes,  melons,  pears, 
and  apples,  that  they  are  exported  to 
Persia,  and  even  to  Hindostan.'" 

The  same  writer  (Malte-Brun), 
again  citing  from  the  same  author, 
says:  "'I  have  often  been  at  Kohen- 
dis,  the  ancient  capital  of  Bucharia. 
I  have  cast  my  eyes  all  around,  and 
never  have  I  seen  a  verdure  more 
fresh  or  abundant,  or  of  wider  ex- 
tent. This  green  carpeting  mingled 
in  the  horizon  in  the  azure  of  the 
skies.  The  simple  verdure  served  as 
a  sort  of  ornamental  offset  to  the 
towns  contained  in  it.  Numerous 
country  seats  decorated  the  simplic- 
ity of  the  fields.  Hence  I  am  not 
surprised  that,  of  all  the  inhabitants 
of  Korasan  and  Maweralnahr,  none 
attain  a  more  advanced  age  than 
those  of  Bucharia.1" — Malte-Brun 's 
Univ.  Geography,  i,  470. 

112.  "We  need  not  go  out  of  our  own  country  to  witness  equal 
examples  of  irreparable  injuries  done  by  improvident  clearings — 
perhaps  on  a  smaller  scale,  but  not  less  disastrous  in  result.     In  the 
older  settled  portions  of  New  England,  in  the  Middle  States,  and 
in  the  South,  there  are  arid  hills  and  worn-out  fields,   no  longer 
worth   any  thing   for  cultivation  or  pasturage,  and  that  offer,  as 
the  only  chance  of  restoration  to  a  useful  purpose,  the  possibility  of 
growing  trees. 

113.  The  abundance  of  cliff-dwellings  and  other  ruins,  in  western 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  appears  to  show  that  that  region  was 
once  capable  of  sustaining  a  larger  population  than  would  be  now 
possible  from  existing  means  of  cultivation.     It  is  of  course  not 
known  as  to  what  has  caused  this  difference,  but  the  destruction  of 
forests  appears  to  afford  the  most  probable  reason. 

114.  Mr.  B.  H.  Baden-Powell,  in  a  report  on  the  Administration 
of  the  Forest  Department  of  India  (1877,  vol.  i,  p.  51),  in  speak- 


28   Injuries  from  Clearings.— The  Blossom  and  its  Parts. 

ing  of  the  central,  high,  arid  lands  of  certain  districts,  says  that  in 
the  worst  of  these  there  are  found  traces  of  ancient  cultivation, 
river  beds  now  dry,  and  remains  of  villages.  In  the  parts  outside 
of  the  arid  region,  the  streams,  once  perennial  and  used  for  irriga- 
tion, are  now  without  water,  excepting  when  swollen  to  torrents  in  the 
rains.  He  adds  :  "  This  phenomenon,  so  commonly  observed  in  all 
the  Punjaub  streams  coming  from  the  now  denuded  lower  hills, 
points  inevitably  to  the  conclusion  that  forest  denudation  has  de- 
prived these  rivers  of  their  steady  water-supply,  and  hence  ruined 
the  rainless  countries  that  were  dependent  upon  them." 

115.  We  quote  these  facts  in  this  connection,  not  because  they 
are  rare  or  unusual,  for  they  are  not.     We  present  them  as  closely 
describing  the  condition  of  the  now  irrigated  and  fertile  regions  of 
Colorado,  California,  and  the  Territories,  whose  fertility  is  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  streams  that  may  be  withdrawn  from  their 
natural  beds  and  distributed  over  the  surface  in  the  growing  season. 
As  an  inevitable  consequence  of  denudation,   these  streams  will 
swell  to  torrents  in  the  winter  rains  and  from  the  rapid  melting  of 
snows  in  spring,  and  become  dry  in  summer,  when  most  needed  for 
irrigation.     The  mining  interest,  depending  upon  a  uniform  water 
supply,  will  share  in  this  misfortune,  which  will  also  be  felt  in  the 
loss  of  water-power,  and  in  the  failure  of  water  for  the  supply  of 
towns  and  cities. 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

REPRODUCTION   FROM   SEED. 

Tlie  essential  parts  of  the  Blossom. 

116.  Flowers  include  the  parts  essential  to  germination,  analogous 
in  effect  to  sex.     They  consist  of  at  least  two  distinct  portions — 
stamens  and  pistils.     The  first  of  these  bears  an  anther,  containing  at 
full  maturity  a  yellow  dust  called  pollen.     The  stamens,  when  few, 
are  generally  of  some  determinate  number,  and  in  perfect  flowers 
are  arranged  around  one  or  more  pistils  in  the  center.     These  have 
at  their  base  the  germ  of  the  future  seeds,  enveloped  in  some  cover- 
ing, which  is  collectively  termed  the  fruit.     The  anthers  are  gen- 
erally supported  or  suspended  by  stalks  or  fibers  called  filaments. 
The  pistil  usually  consists  of  the  stipe,  or  supporting  stem,  and  the 
stigma  or  terminal  part  that  receives  the  pollen.     The  fertilization 


The  Flower  and  its  Parts :  Process  of  Fertilization.      29 


11.  Staminate. 

Flowers  of  the 

Oak  enlarged. 


of  the  blossom  is  secured  whenever  the  pollen,  at  maturity,  is  con- 
veyed to  the  stigma  of  the  pistil. 

117.  The  blossoms  of  trees  are  often  unsymmetri- 
cal,  and  the  parts  essential  to  fertilization  may  be 
either  in  the  same  blossom,  as  shown  on  a  subsequent 
page  in  the  linden,  or  on  different  parts  of  the  same 
tree,  as  shown  in  the  hornbeam  and  the  alder,  in  the 
accompanying  engravings.     In  the  latter,  the  germs 
for  the  early  spring  blossoms  are  formed  the  fall  be- 
fore.    Such   pendant    blossoms   in   trees   are   called 
aments,  or  catkins.     Their  form  and  structure  afford 
characters,  upon  which  botanical  classification  in  part 
depends. 

118.  Where  both  the  staminate  and  pistillate  blos- 
soms grow  upon   the  same  plant,  it   is  said  to   be 
monoecious,  but  when  formed  upon  different  trees  or 

plants,  as  in  case  of  the  poplars  and  willows,  it  is  said  to  be  dioecious. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  seeds  can  not  be  fertile,  unless  trees  bearing 
both  kinds  of  blossoms  grow 
in  the  same  neighborhood. 

119.  The  winds  have  an 
important   influence  in  dis- 
seminating the  pollen  from 
one  tree  to  another,  and  the 
blossoms  of  such  trees  gen- 
erally open  in  the  windy  sea- 
son of  the  year,  and  before 
the  leaves  appear.  The  bees, 
in  pursuit  of  honey,  perform 
an  important  office  in  con- 
veying pollen  from  one  blos- 
som  to   another,  and  there 
are    many   special    arrange- 
ments in  nature  for  securing 
fertilization. 

120.  When  the  pollen  of  one  species  is  conveyed  to  the  pistillate 
flowers  of  another  species,  within  the  same  genus,  cross-fertilization 
sometimes  occurs.    This  may  occur  naturally,  or  by  artificial  means, 


12.  Two  Male  Blossoms  of  the  Hornbeam,  and 
the  Terminal  Pistilate  Blossom. 


30     Process  of  Fertilization :  Distribution  of  Tree  Seeds. 


and  the  hybrids  thus  obtained  may,  in  the  case  of  trees,  be  perpet« 
nated  by  layers,  cuttings  or  grafts. 

121.  When  fer- 
tilization is  se- 
cured, the  stami- 
na te  blossoms  fall 
off  or  dry  up,  and 
the  germs  at  the 
base  of  the  pistils 
expand,  and  ripen 
into  the  fruit. 
This  usually  hap- 
pens the  same 
year  that  the  blos- 
soms appear,  but 
in  some  of  the 
oaks  and  the  con- 
ifers, the  ripening 
process  is  not  com- 
pleted till  the  au- 
tumn of  the  sec- 
ond year  after  fer- 
tilization takes 
place.  Many  trees 
have  their  fertile 
and  their  sterile 
years;  indeed, but 
few  trees  bear 
steadily  and  alike  from  year  to  year.  In  the  case  of  trees  intro- 
duced into  regions  where  they  are  not  native,  they  may  thrive  and 
grow  to  large  size,  but  without  ever  bearing  fertile  seeds,  or  even 
without  blossoming.  A  dense  shade  is  unfavorable  for  the  forma- 
tion of  seeds,  and  trees,  after  being  exposed  to  the  air  and  light  by 
the  clearing  away  of  trees  around  them,  will  usually  bear  fruit  more 
abundantly  in  first  or  second  year  after. 

Of  the  Natural  Distribution  of  Forest  Tree  Seeds. 
122.  While  the  seeds  of  all  trees  may  fall  and  take  root  under  or 
near  the  parent  tree,  and  there  thrive,  when  properly  supplied  with 


13.  Alnus  glntinosa—AldcT. 


The  Natural  Distribution  of  Forest- Tree  Seeds.         31 


14.  Pistillate  Flow- 
ers of  the  Willow. 


moisture  and  light,  nature  has  provided  many  kinds  with  the  means 
ibr  being  carried  to  a  greater  or  less   distance. 
This  natural  dispersion  of  the  seed  may  occur  in 
various  ways : 

123.  Dispersion  by  the  Winds.    Most  of  the  pines 
and  firs  have  their  seeds  furnished  with  a  thin 
membranous  wing  at  one  end,  that  enables  them 
to  be  borne  to  a  considerable  distance  by  the  winds. 
Tho  elms  have  a  thin  disc   entirely  around  the 
seed,  and  the  maples  have  their  seeds  in.  pairs,  each 
side  being  furnished  with  a  membranous  wing.    In 
the  ash  the  seeds   have  Closely  adherent  leaves, 
which  enable  it  to  be  carried  by  the  winds,  and  in 
the  hornbeam  there  is  a  leaf-like  appendage,  that 
aids  in  its  dispersion.     In  the  maples,  the  pairs 
of   seeds,   with    symmetrical   wings,  takes   a   ro- 
tary, spinning  motion  as  they  fall.     The  poplars 
and   willows  have  a  downy  tuft,  which   enables 
them  to  be  carried  by  the  winds,  sometimes  many 
miles  from  the  tree  where  they  grew. 

124.  The   cotton  wood,   which    belongs   to    the 
poplar  family,  derives  its  name  from  this  dowrny 
appendage,  which  lies  abundantly  scattered  over 
the  ground  at  the  season  when  it  ripens.     The 
bass  wood   has  a  heavier  seed,  suspended  on  the 
underside  of  a  leaf-like  wing,  which  causes  it  to 
shoot  off  obliquely  as  it  falls.     In  some  instances, 
the  seeds  falling  in  winter  upon  a  crust  of  snow,  or 
upon  the  ice,  may  glide  along  before  the  wind  a 

great  distance,  and  in  this  way  the  pods  of  the  lo-    16  seed  of  the  Elm 
cust,  and  other  heavier  seeds,  in  their  capsules,  or 
without  them,  may  occasionally  be  scattered. 


15.  Pine  Seeds. 


17.  Seed  of  the 
Birch. 


Of  the  Agency  of  Animals  in  the  Planting  of   Tree 

Seeds. 

125.  We  often  find  trees,  especially  such  as  bear 
edible  nuts,  or  stone  fruits  surrounded  by  a  pulp,  growing  in  situa- 
tions where  the  seeds  have  been  dropped  by  birds  or  animals.  In  fact, 
the  squirrels  may  be  called  the  most  industrious  and  successful 


32         The  Natural  Distribution  of  Forest- Tree  Seeds. 


planters  in  the  world,  as  during  the  nut  season  they  are  continually 
burying  these  seeds,  just  below  the  surface,  un- 
der the  leaves  and  in  the  rich  soil,  in  conditions 
eminently  favorable  for  vegetation.  This  is 
done  at  a  season  when  the  vitality  of  these 
seeds  is  greatest ;  and  although  some  of  them 
may  be  afterwards  eaten,  vast  numbers  germi- 
nate and  grow  to  trees. 

126.  This  will  sufficiently  account  for  most 
instances   in   which   the   trees   bearing   heavy 
seeds,  such  as  the  oaks  and  the  nut-trees,  are 
found  scattered  through  a  forest  of  other  kinds, 
where  none  were  noticed  before.    Upon  careful 
is.  seed  of  the  European  examination  in  a  pine  woodland,  we  may  often 
(Carpinus  find  multitudes  of  young  oaks,  that  spring  up 
from  the  planting  of  squirrels,  and  that  soon 

perish,  unless  the 
pines  happen  to  be 
cut  a  way,  when  they 
may  take  a  vigorous 
growth,  and  thus  be- 
come the  principal 
kind.  The  seeds 
eaten  by  birds,  and 
dropped  undigested,  may  take  root  at  greater  distances  from  the 
parent  tree.1 

Distribution  of  Seeds  by  Currents  of  Water. 

127.  Many  seeds  float  readily  upon  the  water  while  still  in  their 
capsules,  and  some  of  them  without,  and  in  this  way  they  are  car- 
ried long  distances  by  rivers,  and  thrown  up  along  the  shores  of 
lakes.  It  is  thus  that  the  sand-bars  and  shores  of  our  western  riv- 
ers are  continually  supplying  an  inexhaustible  and  ever-renewing 
supply  of  cottonwood  and  other  seedling  trees,  that  may  be  easily 
plowed  up  and  planted  at  a  small  cost,  upon  the  prairies  of  that  re- 
gion, and  with  much  better  chances  of  success  than  where  cuttings 

1  A  most  interesting;  article  upon  this  subject,  by  Henry  D.  Thoreau,  will 
be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  Massachusetts,  18GO, 
p.  11. 


19.  Seeds  of  the  English  Maple  (Acer  campcsire). 


Seeds  that  ripen  early:  Gathering  and -keeping  of  Seeds.  33 

from  these  trees  are  set  in  the  soil  without  roots.  The  success  of 
cuttings  depends  much  on  the  sea- 
son ;  if  very  dry  and  hot,  they  may 
fail,  and  if  moist  and  cool,  they 
will  grow.  But  a  plant  with  suffi- 
cient root  in  the  beginning  has  far 
better  chances  of  getting  well 
started,  and  when  properly  set,  in 
a  soil  where  it  can  get  moisture,  it 
is  almost  sure  to  succeed. 

Seed  tiiat  Ripen  in  Spring  or  Early 
Summer. 


128.  The  elms,  willows,  poplars, 


and  soft  maples  mature  their  seeds 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  and 
if  not  allowed  to  become  too  dry,  may  be  carried 
to  a  considerable  distance,  but  should  be  planted 
as  soon  as  may  be  in  the  same  season.  They  should 
be  lightly  covered,  and  the  ground  should  be  kept 
moist  and  partly  shaded,  until  they  take  root  and 
get  well  sprouted.  Many  of  these  seeds  may  be 
gathered  from  the  surface  of  still  water,  as  they 
have  fallen  from  trees  along  the  banks.  When 
planted,  they  should  be  but  thinly  covered  with 
soil,  and  shaded  from  the  sun..  They  will  gen- 
erally get  well  rooted  the  first  year,  and  ready  for 
an  early  start  in  the  next  season. 


20.  Seeds  of  the  Sycamore  Maple  (Acer 
pseudo-plalanus). 


L    Ripe    Seeds 
the  Poplar  before 
they  fall. 


The  Gathering  and  Keeping  of  Seeds. 
129.  Tree  seeds  should  generally  be  gathered  as 
soon  as  they  are  ripe,  and  if  not  before,  soon  after 
they  have  fallen  from  the  tree.  They  do  not  re- 
tain their  vitality  long;  but  if  not  planted  the 
same  fall,  may  generally  be  kept  till  the  next 
spring.  As  a  general  rule,  they  loose  their  germ- 
inating power  within  a  year.  The  mode  of  keep- 
ing them  over  is  elsewhere  described  in  different 
kinds  of  trees,  and  can  not  be  generally  stated,  except  that  they 


34  Modes  of  keeping  Nuts  and  Acorns. 

should  not  be  allowed  to  heat,  or  mold,  or  become  too  dry,  and  in 
some  cases  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  freeze.  Where  large 
quantities  of  pine  and  other  coniferous  seeds  are  required  for  plant- 
ing in  Europe,  drying-houses  are  constructed,  using  either  solar  or 
artificial  heat  for  drying  the  cones,  so  that  the  seeds  may  be  shaken 
out.  Nuts  and  hard-shelled  seeds  may  be  kept  fresh  by  packing  in 
slightly  damp  sand,  and  keeping  in  a  cool,  but  not  too  dry  a  place. 
Seeds  having  a  pulpy  covering  should  be  washed  out  and  dried  in 
the  shade  before  putting  away.  Small  seeds  may  be  kept  in  sacks 
or  papers. 

A  Cheap  Method  of  Keeping  Nuts  and  Acorns  for  Planting. 

130.  As  these  may  be  spoiled  by  too  much  drying,  or  may  heat 
and  mold  if  in  large  heaps,  or  may  sprout  prematurely  if  too  wet, 
the  following  method  is  sometimes  practiced  :  A  dry  and  sandy 
place  is  selected  in  a  forest,  where  it  is  level,  or  a  little  sloping  to  the 
south,  and  where  the  shelter  of  large  trees  is  low  and  abundant. 
The  place  must  be  fenced  in,  and  should  not  be  liable  to  standing 
water.     A  small  ditch  may  be  dug  around  it  for  drainage.     The 
acorns  or  nuts  are  spread  on  the  ground  as  gathered,  four  or  five 
inches  deep,  the  leaves  and  litter  beiug  first  removed.     From  the 
beginning   they  should   be   thoroughly  raked   daily,   for  the  first 
month,  and  afterwards  once  in  two  or  three  days.     By  the  end  of 
December,  the  tendency  to  heat  and  mold  will  be  over,  and  in  very 
cold  weather  they  should  be  lightly  covered  with  straw  or  leaves  ; 
but  this  should  be  removed  early,  to  prevent  sprouting.     In  tem- 
perate climates  no  covering  is  needed,  and  in  very  rainy  weather  the 
raking  should  be  repeated  till  time  of  planting. 

131.  Thin-shelled  nuts,  such  as  acorns  and  the  chestnut,  sooner 
loose  their  vitality  in  the  sun  and  dry  air,  and  are  more  liable  to 
heat  than  those  having  a  hard  shell,  like  the  black  walnut,  the  but- 
ternut, and  the  hickories.     They  will  not  be  injured  by  freezing,  if 
protected  by  a  thin  covering  of  mulch — for  nature  provides  such  a 
cover  in  the  herbage  and  fallen  leaves.     They  will  need  protection 
from  standing  water,  and  from  vermin  and  other  animals.     When 
kept  under  shelter,  they  should  be  spread  evenly,  and  should  be 
stirred  from  time  to  time,  till  the  moisture  has  partly  dried  out,  so 
that  they  will  not  mold. 


Essential  parts  of  the  Young  Plant. 


35 


Process  of  Germination  of  the  Seed, 

132.  The  seed  contains  the  germs  of  the  first  growth  of  the  future 
tree  in  an  embryo,  and  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  that  will  first  ap- 
pear.    In  the  conifers,  such  as  the  pines,  spruces,  and  cedars,  there 
are  several  of  these  cotyledons,  but  in  most  other  trees  that  we  shall 
have  occasion  to  notice  there  are  two. 

133.  When  living  seeds  are  properly  exposed  to  darkness,  moist- 
ure, air,  and  warmth,  they  will  sprout  and  grow.     In  this  process, 
there  comes  out  from  the  embryo  a  root,  or  radicle,  which  descends 
into  the  soil  iu  whatever  position  the  seed  may  chance  to  lie,  while 
the  cotyledons  or  germinal  leaves  seek  the  air  and  the  light,  forming 
the  plumule  or  stem  of  the  plant. 

134.  The  time  required  for  sprouting  varies  from  a  few  hours  to 
a  few  days,  and  in   some  cases  it  does  not  occur  until  the  next 
season.     The  process  may  sometimes  be  hastened  and  assured  by 
previously  soaking  the  seeds,  and  in  those  hav- 
ing hard  shells  by  scalding,  as  elsewhere  more 

fully  described. 

135.  The   cotyledons  of   the    acorn  (a)  are 
made  up  of  a  multitude  of  small  cells,  filled 
with  a  kind  of  starch,  which  performs  an  office 
quite  aualagous  to  the  albumen  of  an  egg,  and 
is   sometimes   so   called.     It  differs,   however, 
from  albumen  as  found  in  the  egg,  and  in  the 
serum  of  the  blood,  and  is  a  form  of  profeine, 
not  forming  a  part  of  the  tissues,  but  contained 
in  cells  ;  as  a  thin  jelly  mingled  with  the  juices. 
In  other  forms  it  is  called  gluten,  and,   with 
starch,  it  forms  the  principal  bulk  in  grains 
and  seeds. 

136.  This,  absorbing  moisture  from  the  soil, 
and  having  access  to  the  air  and  carbonic  acid 

gas  in  the  soil,  is  changed  into  sugar,  which  is  23.  An  Acorn  giving  out 
soluble  in  the  juices  of  the  young  plant,  and  by      jtcslePluniuie  and  Rad" 
the  time  that  this  supply  is  spent,  the  roots 
have  got  well  started,  and  the  young  tree  has  all  the  elements  of 
life  that  it  requires  for  future  growth. 


36 


Germination  of  Seeds. —  Tests  of  Vitality. 


137.  There  is  often  a  little  delay,  after  the  germ  has  started,  before 

the  roots  get  a  sufficient  hold 
upon  the  soil  to  draw  from  it 
the  nourishment  necessary  for 
a  more  rapid  growth. 

138.  In  natural  planting,  the 
seed  falls   to  the  earth  when 
ripe,  and  scarcely  gets  covered, 
excepting  by  the  dead  leaves. 
It  sometimes  will   sprout    the 
first  season ;  but  in  other  cases, 
as  in  nuts  and  stone-fruits,  the 
germination  takes  place  in  the 
spring  following,  and  after  ex- 
posure to  winter  rains  and  in 
cold  climates  to  the  frost.     It 
is  a  safe  rule  to  follow  this  ex- 
ample, by  planting  or  sowing 
the  seeds  while   they  are  still 
fresh,  and  especially  those  that 
ripen  early  the  same  season. 

139.  As  seeds  of  trees  are 
liable  to  lose  their  vitality  by 
keeping,  they  should  be  tested 
in  doubtful  cases.     If  dry  and 
shriveled,    they   are    probably 
dead.     The  best  way  to  ascer- 
tain whether  they  are  alive  or 
not   is   to   spread   them    upon 
flannel,   cover  them   with   an- 
other  piece    of    flannel,    and, 

after  moistening  them,  place  them  in  a  dark  and  warm  place.  The 
proportion  that  sprout  shows  the  relative  quantity  that  are  alive, 
and  sometimes  the  price  paid  for  tree  seeds  is  governed  by  the  re- 
sults of  this  test. 


24.  Modes  of  Germination  of  different  kinds 
of  Seeds. 

i,  A,  the  seed,  with  germ  at  e,  and  cotyle- 
dons, a,  and  c.  13,  a  first  leaf.  C,  the  first 
pair,  ii,  first  leaves  of  the  ash.  Hi,  leaves 
that  come  out,  the  external  covering  of  the 
seed  being  left  in  the  ground.  The  cross  in 
each  figure  shows  the  place  of  the  earth's 
surface. 


Sowing  of  Seeds  Broad-cast,  etc.  37 

CHAPTER  V. 

OF   THE   VARIOUS    MODES   OF   PROPAGATION   OF  FOREST   TREES. 

140.  In  securing  the  growth  of  trees  in  a  new  grove  or  woodland, 
we  may  obtain  plants  by  either  of  the  following  methods : 

(1.)  From  the  seeds  sown  broad-cast  or  planted  where  the  trees 
are  to  grow. 

(2.)  From  seeds  first  sown  in  seed-beds  or  nurseries,  or  that  spring 
up  from  natural  sowing,  and  that  are  transplanted  for  permanence. 

(3.)  From  cuttings,  layers,  and  other  methods  of  propagation 
from  parts  of  living  trees,  and  that  perpetuate  the  varieties  peculiar 
to  each.  These  may  be  separately  considered  : 

1.    Seeds  sown  Broad-cast  or  Planted  wJiere  the  Trees  are  to  Grow. 

141.  In  some  species,  this  is  done  by  nature  in  a  general  way,  by 
self-seeding,  as  in  case  of  the  cottonwood,  the  chief  requirement 
being  in  the  way  of  preparation,  a  fresh  mellow  surface,  in  the 
season  when  the  seeds  are  being  scattered  by  the  winds.    Upon  very 
steep  surfaces,  that  would  be  liable  to  erosion  from  rains  if  broken 
up,  the  seed  may  be  sown  broad-cast,  without  previously  disturbing 
the  soil,  and  upon  northerly  slopes  this  is  often  done  with  advan- 
tage upon  the  snow. 

142.  In  establishing  a  growth  of  trees  upon  loose  sands,  it  is  also 
necessary  to  sow  the  seeds  broad-cast,  usually  with  those  of  other 
plants  that  give  them  some  protection  when  young ;  for,  in  this 
case,  the  first  fibers  of  the  roots  strike  deep  into  the  soil,  and  they 
can  not  afterwards  be  removed  without  injury. 

143.  It  is  generally  preferable  to  plant  the  seeds  in  rows,  so  as  to 
admit  of  cultivation  between  the  trees  while  they  are  small.     This 
may  be  done  by  seed-planters,  or  by  hand,  as  will  be  more  particu- 
larly described  concerning  the  several  kinds  of  trees  elsewhere  de- 
scribed.    In  planting  seeds  directly,  allowance  should  be  made  for 
loss  from  deep  covering,  depredations  of  birds  and  insects,  and  other 
waste,  as  well  as  from  defective  seeds,  and  from  the  various  acci- 
dents to  which  the  young  plants  may  be  exposed.     In  such  cases 
they  should  be  thinned  out  from  time  to  time,  and  often  the  plants 
thus  taken  out  may  be  used  in  filling  up  the  blank  spaces  in  the 
rows.     In  doing  this,  the  hole  should  be  first  made,  and  the  plant 


38  Sowing  of  Seeds :  Planting  of  Walnuts,  etc. 

with  the  soil  aroiind  its  roots  should  be  taken  up  with  a  hoe  or 
spade,  and  set  in  the  new  place.  The  "bore-spade,"  elsewhere 
described,  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  this  purpose.  [§  198.] 

144.  Seeds  may  be  lightly  covered  with  a  hoe,  or,  better  still, 
with  an  iron  rake,  which  is  made  for  this  purpose.     This  is  made 


25.  Strong  Iron  Rake  for  mellowing  the  Surface  and  covering  Seeds. 

of  sufficient  strength  for  working  among  the  roots  of  trees,  and  is 
of  great  use  in  exposing  a  fresh  surface  when  we  would  wish  to  sow 
seeds  in  vacant  places  in  the  woods,  as  well  as  for  surface  work  gen- 
erally, where  we  would  wish  to  freshen  the  soil  without  moving  it 
from  its  place.  Another  instrument  is  used  to  some  extent  by 
planters  that  may  perhaps  be  understood  without  a  figure.  It  con- 
sists of  a  heavy  iron  disc,  some  eight  or  ten  inches  across,  with  a 
long  handle  coming  up  from  the  center,  and  a  series  of  long  iron 
spikes  on  the  under  side.  When  this  is  struck  into  the  ground,  and 
turned  around  by  the  aid  of  a  cross-bar  in  the  handle,  it  mellows 
the  soil  on  a  circular  spot  as  large  as  the  disc,  and  as  deep  as  the 
spikes  are  long.  A  dibble  or  pointed  stick  should  never  be  used  in 
planting  seeds,  or  at  least  not  unless  it  makes  a  hole  much  larger 
than  the  seeds  and  has  a  guard  to  regulate  the  depth.  If  small,  and 
used  carelessly,  the  seeds  may  be  covered  too  deep,  or  they  may 
lodge  part  way  down  the  hole,  leaving  a  void  space  under  them. 

The  Planting  of  Walnut  and  other  Nut- Trees. 

145.  In  a  dry  climate,  and  in  the  fine  prairie  soil,  it  is  difficult  to 
transplant  any  of  the  oaks  or  nut-trees  without  great  risk  of  losing 
them,  and  it  will  be  generally  found  better  to  plant  them  where 
they  are  to  remain.  In  doing  so,  it  is  an  excellent  plan,  and  some- 
times very  necessary,  to  give  them  in  the  first  years  some  protection, 
by  the  aid  of  the  fast-growing  kinds,  such  as  the  white  willow  or 
the  cotton  wood,  set  in  alternate  places  in  the  rows,  and  to  provide  a 
belt  of  the  latter  alone  around  the  outside  of  the  grove. 


Planting  in  Seed-beds  and  Nur 


—  - 

i  i  *  , 


Soaking  of  Seeds  before  Pla 

146.  Hard-shelled  seeds,  such  as  the  common  and  honey  locust, 
and  the  Kentucky  coffee-tree,  etc.,  will  not  grow  until  they  have 
been  soaked  for  some  time,  and  sometimes  not  till  the  second  or  even 
third  year  after  planting.     Their  germinating  power  is  hastened  by 
scalding  fora  short  time,  and  by  allowing  them  to  macerate  in  warm 
water.     The  process  may  be  repeated  several  .times,  the  seeds  that 
show  signs  of  sprouting  being  first  picked  out,  at  each  time,  before 
exposing  the  rest  to  this  treatment.     They  should  be  planted  with- 
out delay  ;  for,  if  allowed  to  dry  after  being  once  softened,  their  vi- 
tality is  soon  lost. 

2.  Seeds  Planted  in  Seed-Beds  and  Nurseries. 

147.  In  selecting  grounds  for  a  nursery,  we  should  avoid  those 
that  arc  exceptionally  rich,  or  that  are  too  damp,  because  the  young 
plants  thus  started  will,  when   placed  in  less   fertile   and   dryer 
grounds,  either  perish  or  lose  their  vigor,  and  be  slow  in  recovering 
strength.     A  hard  and  barren  soil  is  still  more  unfavorable,  for  the 
plants  that  start  are  feeble,  and  will  not  endure  the  hardship  of 
transplanting.    The  grounds  should  be  of  good  fertility,  moderately 
compact,  and  well  drained,  sheltered  from  hot  and  from  cold  winds, 
and  not  exposed  to  drouth. 

148.  The  soil  should  be  prepared  by  deep  cultivation,  and  be  kept 
free  from  weeds.     Sometimes  this  may  be  done  by  the  cultivation 
of  some  hoed  crop  between  the  rows  of  young  trees,  when  they  are 
not  liable  to  be  shaded  or  injured  by  this  practice.    The  presence  of 
an  adjacent  woodland  will  often  afford  protection,  and  a  stream  of 
water  near  by  will  be  found  very  convenient  for  watering  the  young 
plants  or  for  irrigation  in  a  dry  time. 

149.  It  is  generally  best  to  sow  the  seeds  in  beds,  laid  out  in  bands 
about  four  feet  wide,  and  of  indefinite  length,  with  paths  between. 
The  seeds  are  sowed  in  rows,  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  apart,  and 
very  close  together  in  the  rows.     The  covering  should  be  light,  and 
only  just  sufficient  to  prevent  the  seeds  from  being  washed  out  by 
the  rains.    They  may,  with  great  advantage,  be  planted  in  and  cov 
ered  by  a  soil  prepared  from  dead  leaves  and  decomposed  sod.1 

1  For  preparing  this  soil,  the  following  directions  are  given  by  Lorentz 
and  Parade;  "  Select  a  ghady  place,  not  exposed  to  the  south,  but  open  to 


40  Planting  in  Seed-Beds  and  Nurseries. 

150.  The  young  seedlings  of  trees  generally  require  shading  a 
part  of  the  time,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  conifers.  This 
may  be  done  by  placing  screens  made  of  lath,  with  spaces  between 
as  wide  as  the  pieces,  and  supported  a  few  inches  above  the  surface ; 
or  a  kind  of  arbor  may  be  made  of  poles,  over  the  beds,  high  enough 
for  a  man  to  stand  upright  under  them,  and  loosely  covered  with 
brush. 

151\  The  object  of.  these  screens  is  to  afford  the  same  kind  of 
shelter  that  the  young  plants  receive  under  the  parent  trees  in  the 
forest,  where  the  sunlight  and  shadow  alternately  passes  oyer  them, 
at  different  hours  of  the  day. 

152.  In  a  dry  time  the  seed-beds  should  be  watered,  and  upon 
first  sowing  they  may  need  the  protection  of  a  light  covering  of 
brush  or  grass  to  keep  them  from  being  disturbed  by  the  birds. 

153.  In  watering  a  seed-bed  and  nursery  rows,  in  a  dry  time,  the 
earth  should  be  dampened  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  when  begun 
in  dry  weather,  it  must  be  continued  till  the  rains  come ;  for,  other- 
wise, a  crust  will  form  on  the  surface,  which  prevents  access  of  the 
air  to  the  roots.     No  other  mode  of  watering  is  so  good  in  a  nursery 
as  that  of  irrigation,  especially  in  preparing  young  trees  for  trans- 
planting in  cities,  and  there  we  wish  to  secure  an  abundant  mass  of 
fibrous  roots. 

154.  The  seed-beds  and  rows  should  be  kept  free  of  weeds,  the 
former  by  hand-weeding  and  the  latter  by  hoeing ;  but  in  the  part 
occupied  by  larger  trees  it  is  of  less  importance,  but  still  necessary. 

the  sky,  so  that  the  air  shall  have  free  access;  make  one  or  more  piles  of 
dead  leaves,  ferns,  and  other  succulent  vegetation  gathered  before  their  seeds 
are  ripe,  and  make  other  like  piles  of  sods  and  the  weeds  pulled  up  in  clean- 
ing out  the  seed- rows  and  the  alleys  between  them.  These  piles  may  be  a 
yard  or  a  yard  and  a  half  high.  In  spring  and  fall  they  should  be  turned, 
and  in  a  dry  time  they  should  be  watered.  The  sods  will  generally  decay 
the  first  year,  but  it  may  require  three  cr  four  years  to  decompose  the  leaves. 
A  mixture  of  beech  leaves  with  the  leaves  of  conifers  makes  the  best  possi- 
ble quality,  and  the  process  may  be  hastened  by  mixing  in  the  foliage  of  the 
ash,  maple,  elm,  willow,  poplar,  alder,  locust,  etc.,  that  decay  more  rapidly. 
When  the  seed  beds  have  been  prepared  with  a  mixture  of  these  soils,  they 
will  afterwards  need  but  a  thin  covering  every  year  to  maintain  the  soil  in 
the  best  state  of  fertility,  and  there  will  be  no  need  of  moving  to  a  new 
place  on  account  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil." — Culture  des  Bois,  5th  ed., 
p.  595. 


Planting  in  Seed-Beds  and  Nurseries.  41 

In  soils  liable  to  heave  with  the  frost,  the  young  plants,  when  thrown 
out,  should  be  carefully  replaced  in  the  spring,  and  the  soil  pressed 
down  against  the  roots  by  hand. 

155.  The  proper  time  of  sowing  in  seed-beds  is  generally  in  the 
spring,  but  the  seeds  that  ripen  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  such 
as  the  elms  and  soft  maples,  should  be  sown  the  same  season,  and 
as  soon  as  may  be  after  ripening.     We  give  elsewhere  directions  for 
the  collection  and  preservation  of  seeds. 

156.  Experience  has  shown  that  this  dense  sowing  in  the  seed- 
rows  yields  the  best  results,  for  the  plants  are  not  so  liable  to  be 
crowded  out  by  the  weeds ;  and  although  the  roots  may  interlock  a 
little,  they  easily  separate  when  taken  out.     The  larger  plants  may 
be  first  taken  out,  leaving  the  feebler  ones  until  they  get  stronger. 

157.  It  is  remarked  by  Carriere  *  that  the  seeds  of  some  conifers 
very  easily  loose  their  germinating  power,2  so  that  it  is  desirable  that 
they  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  may  be  after  they  are  ripe  ;  but  gen- 
erally, as  they  ripen  in  the  fall,  they  may  be  kept  till  spring.    With 
such  as  have  the  seed  imbedded  in  a  fleshy  or  pulpy  envelope,3  it 
requires  the  greatest  care  to  keep  them  alive  till  the  next  year.     In 
all  species  the  germinating  power  deteriorates  more  or  less  rapidly 
the  longer  the  seeds  are  kept.    There  are  great  advantages  in  spring 
sowing,  as  is  the  common  practice,  and  this  may  be  done  at  any 
time  from  March  to  May.    In  damp  mild  seasons,  success  is  certain  ; 
but  in  case  of  drouth,  the  young  plants  are  sure  to  suffer,  and  in  the 
large  way  it  is  impossible  to  water  them.     He  therefore  inquires  in 
a  way  that  half  implies  advice,  as  to  whether  it  would  not  sometimes 
be  best  to  sow  late  in  autumn,  there  still  being  some  chance  of  in- 
jury from  the  cold.     This  might  in  many  cases  still  be  prevented 
by  a  covering  of  leaves,  or,  perhaps  still  better,  by  sowing  oats, 
barley,   or  some  other  grain    with   the   coniferous   seeds.     These, 
springing  up  in  the  fall,  would  afford  a  covering  to  the  young  plants 
sufficient  to  protect  them  through  the  first  winter.     This  sowing  of 

1  Traite  general  des  Coniferes,  p.  574. 

2  Such  as  those   belonging  to  the  genera  Abies,  Araucaria,  Arthroiaxis, 
Callitris,   Cryptumeria,   Cunninghamia,  Frenela,  Libocedrus,  Sequoia,   Taxo- 
dium,  Ihuja,  Tsitga,  etc. 

3  Such  as  the   Cephalotaxis,  Dacrydium,  Gnetum,  Podocarpus,  Salisburia, 
Taxus,  Torrega,  etc. 


42  Planting  in  Seed- Beds  and  Nurseries. 

grain  should  be  thin,  so  as  not  to  smother  the  seedlings  that  they 
•were  intended  to  protect. 

158.  Other  writers  prefer  the  first  heat  of  spring,  for  the  sowing 
of  conifers,  excepting  the  silver-fir  (Abies pectinata) ,  which  should  not 
be  kept  over  winter,  as  it  quickly  looses  its  life,  and  can  hardly  bear 
transportation  for  a  great  distance.     In  great  operations  they  gener- 
ally divide  the  sowing  between  the  fall  and  spring,  and  take  the 
chances  for  and  against  in  each  season. 

159.  In  the  fall  of  the  same  year,  or  in  the  spring  following,  the 
plants  should  be  taken  up  carefully  from  the  seed-beds  and  set  in 
nursery  rows.     The  roots  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  air  longer 
than  is  necessary,  and  those  of  conifers  suffer  much  sooner  than 
those  of  the  deciduous  kinds.    They  will  always  bear  longer  exposure 
in  autumn  than  in  spring,  because  the  evaporation  is  then  less,  and 
the  circulation  is  suspended.     For  this  reason  fall-setting  is  advised 
as  preferable ;  but  local  climate  and  circumstances  may  determine 
one  or  the  other  time  as  the  proper  one,  and  in  this,  experience  only 
can  decide. 

160.  Young  trees  do  best  when  they  are  transplanted  once  or 
twice  in  the  nursery  rows,  or  when  they  have  been  simply  loosened 
and  drawrn  up,  to  be  at  once  replaced.     This  should  be  done  only  in 
damp  weather. 

161.  Finally,  when  of  convenient  size,  and  from  two  to  five  years 
of  age,  the  trees  should  be  loosened  with  a  spade-fork,  drawn  up, 
and  carefully  transplanted  where  they  are  to  remain.     If  they  are 
to  be  carried  a  considerable  distance,  they  must  be  carefully  packed 
so  as  to  prevent  the  roots  from  drying  up,  yet  not  so  as  to  entirely 
exclude  the  air. 

162.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  the  management  of 
a  nursery  requires  practical  skill,  and  unless  the  proposed  plantations 
are  extensive,  it  will  generally  be  found  best  to  procure  the  young 
plants  from  nurserymen,  rather  than  attempt  to  raise  them  from 
the  seed.     This  is  more  particularly  true  of  the  conifers,  that  are  as 
a  rule  more  difficult  to  get  started  than  the  deciduous  kinds.     In  ex- 
tensive plantations,  it  is  always  preferable  to  establish  nurseries  near 
the  grounds  to  be  planted,  as  well  to  avoid  the  expense  of  transporta- 
tion and  exposure  of  roots  by  removal,  as  to  secure  conditions  of 
soil  that  shall  be  as  nearly  as  possible  alike,  so  that  the  young 


Planting  in  Seed- Beds  and  Nurseries.  43 

trees  will  suffer  less  from  the  change,  and  be  iii  better  condition  to 
take  a  vigorous  start. 

163.  Trees  from  nurseries  should  have  their  roots  exposed  as  lit- 
tle as  possible  to  the  air,  and  they  should  be  planted  immediately 
after  they  are  unpacked.     It  sometimes  happens  that  lots  intended 
for  different  persons  are  sent  in  one  box,  to  one  address.    If  the  own- 
ers are  not  present  to  receive  them,  they  may  lie  hours  or  days  in 
the  dry  air,  and  when  planted  the  chances  are  that  none  will  be 
found   alive.     A  little   common  sense  and  thoughtful  care  would 
prevent  this  disappointment.     If  the  trees  can  not  be  at  once  planted, 
they  should  be  at  least  "  heeled  in,"  by  covering  the  roots  with  soil, 
and  dampening  it  a  little  if  dry.     They  may  be  sometimes  thus 
kept  through  the  winter,  in  cases  where  from  overflow  or  mirey  soil 
they  can  not  be  taken  up  from  the  soil  where  they  have  been  started, 
in  time  for  early  planting. 

164.  The  age  at  which  trees  should  be  set  for  permanence  depends 
upon  soil,  exposure,  and  other  circumstances  that  render  it  difficult 
to  fix  a  general  rule.     For  ordinary  planting,  however,  one  year  in 
the  seed-bed  and  two  years  in  nursery  rows,  may  be  stated  as  the 
general  rule.     But  for  exposed  hillsides,  they  do  better  oftentimes 
when  the  seedlings  one  year  in  the  beds,  and  one  year  in  the  rows, 
or  two  years  in  the  beds  and  one  in  the  rows,  are  taken. 

165.  In  the  oak,  it  has  been  recommended  to  cut  off  the  tap-roots 
with  a  sharp  spade,  when  the  plants  are  young,  and  before  taking 
them  from  the  seed-bed.     They  are  allowed  to  stand  the  first  win- 
ter, and  when  re-set  the  next  spring,  in   nursery  rows,  the  lateral 
roots  appear  abundantly.     In  time  another  tap-root  will  form,  which 
is  again  cut  off  before  final  planting. 

166.  Another  plan  recommended  by  Duhamel  consists  in  paving 
the  seed-bed  with  flat  stones,  along  the  line  of  the  rows,  and 'at  a 
proper  depth  below  the  surface,  so  as  to  stop  the  descent  of  the  tap- 
roots, and  compel  the  formation  of  laterals. 

167.  More  recently  a  method  has  been  proposed  in  France,  for 
securing  a  dense  growth  of  lateral  roots  in  the  seedling  oaks,  that  has 
been  fbund  quite  successful.1     The  acorns  are  thickly  spread  over  a 

1  M.  H.  Levret,  in  a  publication  by  the  French  Forest  Administration, 
issued  in  1878. 

The  same  author  suggests  another  method,  which  consists  in  pinching  off 
the  plumule  within  five  or  six  days  after  it  appear-,  by  which  the  first,  i-m- 


44        Transplanting :  Propagation  from  Cuttings,  etc. 

layer  of  broken  stone,  and  are  covered  with  as  rich  a  soil  as  possi- 
ble and  watered.  This  arrangement  secures  free  access  by  the  air, 
and  the  plants  send  out  an  abundance  of  laterals,  which  extend  up 
into  the  soil  above  them,  and  to  but  a  limited  extent  downward. 
By  covering  a  very  hard  stony  surface  with  a  very  rich  soil,  nearly 
the  same  result  is  obtained.1 

Spring  or  Fall  Transplanting. 

168.  As  to  the  time  of  transplanting  no  general  rule  may  be  given. 
In  some  countries,  as  in  France,  fall  planting  after  the  September 
rains,  does  best  for  the  deciduous  kinds,  and  spring,  at  the  time 
when  vegetation  is  just  beginning  to  start,  for  the  conifers,  or  resin- 
ous kinds. 

169.  When  young  plants  are  taken  up  in  the  dormant  season  of 
vegetation,  their  roots  suffer  less  from  exposure  to  the  air  than  when 
the  season  of  active  growth  is  just  beginning,  and  they  will  then 
doubtless  bear  transportation  better.     There  are,  in  short,  both  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  attending  both  fall  and  spring  planting, 
and  a  safe  rule  would  be  to  experiment  upon  both  in  new  localities, 
before  definitely  adopting  either  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  season. 
It  would  be  unsafe  to  accept  these  results   as  final,  until  they  had 
been  tested  for  a  series  of  years,  because  one  winter  might  be  un- 
usually open,  or  a  spring  or  summer  exceptionally  dry;  or  some 
other  cause  not  of  ordinary  occurrence,  may  affect  a  result  that 
would  not  occur  again  for  many  years. 

3.  Propagation  from  Cuttings,  Layers,  and  other  Methods. 

Cuttings. 

170.  If  we  take  healthy  and  vigorous  shoots  from  the  last  year's 
growth,  of  many  deciduous  trees,  and  notably  the  cottonwood  pop- 
lars and  willows,  and  thrust  them  into  the  ground,  they  will  under 
favorable  conditions  put  forth  roots  from  the  lower  end  and  the  buds 

pulse  of  growth  is  thrown  with  greater  force  into  the  root.  He  proposes  to 
shade  the  seed-beds  with  thin  cloth,  which  admit  sufficient  light,  and  all  the 
rain,  and  prevent  damages  from  frost.  Upon  the  stone  seed  beds  he  would 
place  acorns  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  the  square  meter,  or  about  810  to  a  square 
yard. 

1  See  preceding  note. 


Propagation  by  Catlings,  Layers  and  Grafting.        45 

that  are  covered,  and  become  separate  trees.  They  should  only  be 
taken  when  the  leaves  are  off,  and  should  be  set  early  in  spring. 
The  lower  end  should  be  cut  off  smoothly  and  obliquely,  and  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  bark  in  setting. 

171.  If  the  shoots  are  cut  late  in  fall  and  are  put  away  in  a  damp 
cellar,  or  if  they  are  buried  below  the  reach  of  frost,  a  callus  will 
form  at  the  lower  end,  from  which  the  roots  will  readily  spring.     In 
the  finely  divided  soil  of  the  prairies,  they  should  be  set  deep,  and 
in  a  dry  climate  but  one  or  two  buds  above  the  surface  will  be  suf- 
ficient.    The  soil  should  be  pressed  down  firmly  around  the  shoots, 
at  the  time  of  setting,  and  they  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  till 
they  shade  the  ground.     Cuttings  may  be  set  in  the  fall,  if  covered 
with  a  mulch  in  winter.     This  is  done  with  gooseberries,  currents, 
and  the  grape,  but  is  not  so  certain  as  in  early  spring. 

Layers. 

172.  This  method,  in  common  use  among  nurserymen,  is  some- 
times employed  to  get  an  independent  root  to  a  branch  before  sepa- 
rating it  from  the  parent  tree.     The   branch  is  bent  down  into  a 
hollow  place  made  in  the  soil,  confined  by  a  peg  or  a  stone  and  the 
end  turned  up,  so  that  the  leaves  are  exposed  to  the  air.     It  is 
generally  well  to  partly  cut  off  the  branch  at  the  lowest  part,  leaving 
the  upper  half  entire.     The  ground  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds, 
and  should  be  watered  in  a  dry  time,  while  the  new  roots  are  form- 
ing.   After  they  have  become  well  rooted,  such  plants  may  be  care- 
fully cut   apart   from   the   stock,  and   transplanted   like   seedling 
sprouts.     This  is  a  very  sure  and  convenient  way  to  perpetuate  va- 
rieties of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees,  and  is  usually  done  in  autumn. 
It  does  not  apply  to  coniferous  kinds.     • 

Grafting. 

173.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  certain  ways  of  perpet- 
uating varieties  in  fruit  and  ornamental  trees.     It  is  done  chiefly  ir» 
spring,  and  before  the  leaves  appear,  and  is  most  likely  to  succeed  in 
mild  moist  weather.     The  stock  should  generally  be  a  little  more 
advanced  than  the  scion,  and  to  secure  this  the  latter  should  be  cut 
in  winter,  or  even  in  autumn,  and  kept  in  a  cool  moist  place,  as  in 
a  cellar,  with  the  ends  set  in  damp  moss  or  fine  soil.    They  should 
be  taken  from  thrifty  shoots  of  the  last  year's  growth.     If  cut  from 


46  Propagation  by  Grafting  and  Budding. 

lower  branches,  they  will  fruit  sooner,  but  do  not  grow  to  so  hand- 
some a  shape  as  those  from  the  center  or  top  of  the  tree.  They  are 
often  taken  from  young  trees  in  nursery  rows. 

174.  There  are  various  modes  of  grafting,  which  need  not  here 
be  described  in  detail.    They  agree  in  bringing  the  newly  cut  surfaces 
of  the  scion  and  the  stock  together,  so  that  the  fresh  bark  and 
young  wood  of  each  are  in  close  contact,  the  wound  covered  from 
the  air  by  some  plastic  substance,  and  the  parts  held  together  till 
they  unite.    This  is  done  by  splicing,  inserting  in  a  clef,  by  binding 
two  branches  or  trunks  together,  after  cutting  away  the  bark  and 
wood  of  each  so  that  they  may  be  closely  united,  and  in  various 
other  ways.    Where  two -living  trees  are  thus  united,  the  connection 
is  cut  away  from  one  of  them,  after  the  union  is  complete. 

175.  Budding,  is  the  insertion  of  the  bud  of  one  tree  under  the 
bark  of  another,  and  covering  and  securing  it  till  a  union  forms. 
It  is  done  in  midsummer  and  early  autumn,  from  the  1st  of  July 
till  the  middle  of  September,  and  only  when  the  bark  of  the  stock 
will  separate  from  the  wood.     Annular  budding  consists  in  taking 
a  ring  of  bark  from  one  tree,  containing  a  bud,  and    placing  it 
around  a  branch  of  the  same  size,  from  which  a  similar  piece  of  bark 
has  been  taken  in  another  tree.     Sometimes  a  piece  less  than  the 
entire  size  is  inserted.     By  this  means  the  injuries  to  bark  by  mice, 
etc.,  may  sometimes  be  repaired. 

176.  By  the  aid  of  cuttings,  grafts,  and  layers,  we  are  able  to  se- 
cure the  growth  of  some  kinds  of  trees  that  never  bear  seed  in  the 
climate  where  they  may  be  grown  by  transplanting,  and  especially 
we  may  perpetuate  varieties  to  indefinite  extent  by  these  methods. 

177.  As  examples  of  this,  we  find  the  Lombardy  poplar,  the 
weeping  willow,  and  cut-leaved  varieties  of  the  birch,  alder,  beech, 
maple,  etc.,  under  cultivation,  that  would  be  lost  in  a  single  gener- 
ation of  tree-life,  if  they  depended  upon  growth  from  the  seeds. 
The  sumac,   so  successfully  grown  in   Southern  Europe,  does  not 
ripen  its  seeds,  even  in  Sicily,  where  it  grows  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection; and  the  English  elm  ( Ulmus  campestris)  is  almost  always 
grown  from  layers,  or  suckers,  taken  from  old  trees,  or  by  grafting 
upon  other  stocks.     It  may  even  be  grown  in  moist  rich  soils,  by 
burying  the  chips  having  bark  with  buds  upon  them,  if  these  are 
cut  in  early  spring,  and  planted  at  once  before  drying. 


Modes  of  Planting  Trees. 


47. 


Planted 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PLANTING. — (Continued. ) 

\l  The  Interval  beticecn  Trees  in  Planting. 

/1 78.  Upon  a  rocky  and  broken  surface,  no  attention  need  be 
given  to  the  regularity  of  spaces,  the  most  convenient  spots  being 
taken  wherever  found,  and  often  different  species,  as  places  best 
suited  for  their  growth  occur.  But  in  a  level,  or  moderately  un- 
even country,  there  are  great  advantages  to  be  gained  from  planting 
at  fixed  intervals.  We  will  notice 
some  of  the  methods  that  may  be 
followed : 

Planting  in  Rows. 

179.  In  this,  the  intervals  may  be 
wider  apart  in  one  direction  than 
in  the   other.     The   rows   may  be 

from  4  to  8  feet  or  more  apart  at  26'  Modeof 

first,  and  the  trees  in  the  rows  from 

3  to  6  feet.     The  advantages  of  this  are,  that  the  spaces  between 

can  be  cultivated  more  easily  for  the  first  years,  and  by  taking  out 

alternate  rows,  as  the  trees  become 

crowded,  we  can  pass  in  between 

the  trees  in  removing  the  products. 

Planting  in  Squares. 

180.  In  this,  the  spaces  are  at 
equal  distances  in  both  directions  ; 
and  in  this,  as  in  the   preceding, 
regularity  may  be  secured  by  mark- 
ing the  ground  after  it  is  prepared, 

and  by  planting  at  all  the  intersections  of  the  right-angled  lines, 
omitting  none. 

Quincunx  Order. 

181.  Here  the  trees  are  set  at  the  corners  of  squares  and  in  the 
central  point  within.     The  trees  range  in  rows  horizontally,  ver- 
tically, and  diagonally,  and  if  the  trees  in  the  former  are  10  meas- 


\             , 

\          ( 

ft                                            £ 

1    '   ( 

"V                     A 

S  * 

\                    -t 

Mode  of  Marking  for  Trees  Planted 
in  Squares. 


48 


Modes  of  Planting  Trees. 


ures  apart,  the  diagonals  will  be  slightly  more  than  14.  This  reg- 
ularity is  best  secured  by  marking 
the  ground  off  into  small  squares, 
and  planting  in  alternate  points  of 
intersection  each  way,  as  shown  in 
the  margin.  (Fig.  29.) 


28.  Mode  of  Planting  in  Quincunx 
Order. 


—  i 

* 

9  — 

j  — 

•>_ 

t— 

L 

4 

{ 

—  7 

—  f 

7 

}  . 

p 

=< 

1= 

==£. 

b= 

=£ 

1= 

Mode  of  Marking1  for  Quincunx 
Planting. 


30.  Triangular  Order  of  Planting. 


* 

—  <| 

r* 

~t 

-1 

4 

\ 

I 

V 

V. 
3  — 

—f 

1 

—  / 

k—  - 

—  / 

T  

—  € 

*- 

~f 

31.  Mode  of  Parallel  Marking  to 
secure  the  Triangular  Order. 


The  Triangular  Order. 

182.  In  this,  the  rows  run  in 
three  directions,  the  trees  being  at 
equal  distances  in  each  at  the  cor- 
ners of  equilateral  triangles ;  or, 
combining  six  of  these  triangles, 
we  find  that  each  tree  is  the  center 
of  a  hexagon,  with  six  trees  at 
equal  distances  around  it.  We  get 
the  same  arrangement  by  drawing 
a  series  of  circles  having  equal 
radii,  and  so  that  the  circumference 
of  each  passes  through  the  centers 
of  all  of  those  around  it.  We  nearly 
secure  this  in  a  practical  way,  by 
marking  off  a  field  by  parallel 
lines,  crossing  at  right  angles,  and 
at  twice  the  distance  apart  in  one 
direction  more  than  in  the  other. 
If  we  plant  at  the  alternate  points 
of  intersection,  we  shall  have  the 
triangular  order.  By  plowing  in 
the  three  directions  between  the 
rows,  such  plantations  may  be  cul- 
tivated in  the  same  way  as  squares, 
but  the  rows  must  be  wider  apart 
in  order  to  do  this  to  advantage. 


Tables  showing  Number  of  Trees. 


49 


183.  Number  of  Trees  that  may  be  set  upon  a  Piece  of  Land  100 
Yards  Square  on  a  side,  in  Right-angled  Rows  of  equal  and  un- 
equal Distances  apart. 


g-ft 

Yards  between  Rows. 

|?  *! 

•  c! 

1.0 

15 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

40 

4.5 

5.0 

5.5 

'•     0  3 

05 

20,000 

13.333 

10,000 

8,000 

6,667 

5,714 

5,000 

4.444 

4.000 

3,636 

10 

lo.dOO 

6,667 

5.000 

4.000 

3,333 

2,8-57 

2.500 

2,222 

2,000 

1,818 

15 

6.067 

4,444 

3.333 

2.667 

2222 

1,905 

1,667 

M81 

1,333 

1,212 

2  0 

5,000 

3.333 

2,500 

2,000 

1.667 

1,429 

1,250 

1,111 

1,000 

909 

25 

4.000 

2.fifi7 

2  000 

1,600 

1,333 

1,143 

1,000 

8S9 

800 

727 

3  0 

3,333 

2.222 

1.667 

1,333 

1,111 

952 

8313 

741 

667 

60(5 

3  5 

2.857 

1.905 

1,429 

1,143 

952 

816 

714 

635 

571 

519 

40 

2,500 

1,667 

1.250 

1,000 

833 

714 

625 

5-56 

500 

455 

4  5 

2,222 

1,4*1 

1.111 

889 

741 

6.",5 

556 

494 

444 

404 

5.0 

2,000 

1,333 

1,000 

800 

667 

571 

500 

444 

400 

364 

55 

,818 

1.212 

909 

727 

606 

519 

455 

404 

364 

333 

60 

,667 

1.111 

833 

667 

5.56 

476 

417 

370 

333 

303 

6  5 

1,538 

1,026 

76'.) 

615 

513 

440 

385 

342 

308 

280 

7.0 

,429 

952 

714 

571 

476 

408 

357 

317 

286 

260 

75 

,333 

889 

667 

533 

444 

381 

333 

296 

267 

242 

80 

.250 

833 

625 

500 

417 

3-57 

313 

278 

250 

227 

85 

,176 

784 

588 

471 

392 

336 

294 

261 

235 

219 

90 

1,111 

741 

556 

494 

370 

317 

278 

247 

222 

202 

10.0 

1,000 

667 

500 

400 

333 

286 

250 

222 

200 

100 

In  this  table  we  may  substitute  any  other  denomination  of  linear 
measure  in  place  of  yards. 


184.   Comparison  between  the  Numbers  set  in  Squares  and  in  Quincunx 

Order. 


Ynrds  * 
Trees 

1*2 

fD  •*  g 

*fi 

P 

111 

Sfl 

.      "-   JO 

ll 

00 

II  » 

it! 

3  S* 
0  S 

!  a 

33   ~   p 

•;i| 

:  g* 

*s! 

gS 

;  | 

*  S-  * 

§1 

'•  5* 

:  x  S- 

:  3 

:  5» 

*5* 

;  gi 

1 

:  S 

•    3 

:  IT  a 

•  ?i 

:  3 

•     <r»  -1 

7? 

'•    3 

•  Is 

?3 

05 

4.0000 

46.188 

3.5 

816 

943 

65 

237 

273 

10 

1,0000 

11,547 

40 

625 

722 

7  0 

204 

236 

15 

4.444 

5,132 

4  5 

494 

570 

7.5 

178 

205 

2  0 

2,500 

2,887 

5.0 

400 

462 

80 

156 

180 

2  5 

1,600 

1,848 

55 

333 

382 

90 

123 

143 

3.0 

1,111 

1,283 

60 

278 

321 

10.0 

100 

115 

*We  may  substitute  any  other  unit  of  linear  measure,  as  in  preceding  table.  Jt 
will  be  seen  that  a  little  over  15  per  cent  is  gained  in  number  by  the  quincunx  ar- 
rangement. 


50 


Close  Planting  and  its  Effect. 


185.  Dumber  of  Trees  required  to  Plant  an  Acre  of  Land  in  Squares, 
or  in  Roivs  at  Right  Angles,  and  at  equal  Distances  apart  both  ivays. 


Feet 

Number 

Feet 

Number 

Feet 

Number 

Feet 

Number 

between 

of 

between 

of 

between 

of 

between 

of 

Kows. 

Trees. 

Kows  . 

Trees. 

Rows. 

Trees. 

Kows. 

Trees. 

1.0 

43.560 

7.0 

889 

13  0 

257 

19  0 

120 

1.5 

19,360 

75 

779 

13  5 

2)J9 

19  r. 

114 

20 

•    10,890 

8.0 

680" 

14  0 

222  - 

20  0 

108 

25 

6,970 

85 

-     603      • 

14  5 

207 

22  0 

90 

3.0 

4,840 

90 

537 

15  0 

193 

24  0 

75 

.   3.5 

3,556 

9.5 

482 

15  5 

1SI 

26  0 

64 

4.0 

2,722 

10.0 

435 

16  0 

170 

28  0 

55 

4.5 

2.151 

10  5 

395 

16  5 

164 

30.0 

48 

50 

1,742 

11.0 

360 

17  0 

150 

40  0 

27 

55 

1.440 

11  5 

339 

17  5 

142 

50.0 

17 

fi.O 

1,210 

12  0 

302 

18  0 

134 

05 

1,031 

12  5 

270 

18.5 

127 

Tlie  Necessity  of  Close  Planting. 

186.  As  a  general  rule,  all  trees  growing  in  an  open  space  have  a 
tendency  to  spread  out  laterally,  and  not  to  grow  as  high  as  where 
they  are  surrounded  by  other  trees.     This  tendency  to  branch  from 
near  the  ground  is  greater  in  a  dry  climate  and  in  places  exposed  to 
strong  winds.     It  is  therefore  a  common  practice  among  skilled  for- 
esters to  plant  the  trees  much  nearer  together  than  they  could  stand 
when  mature,  and  thin  them  out  as  they  become  larger. 

187.  We  see  this  thinning-out  process  going  on  naturally  in  the 
native  woods,  where  the  stronger  shade  out  and  kill  off  the  feebler,  so 
that  but  a  few  of  the  many  that  started  as  seedlings  come  to  matur- 
ity.    It  is  best  to  do  this  at  proper  times,  without  waiting  for  this 
dying,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  it  should  be  done  at  stated  times  and 
throughout  a  given  piece  of  woodland  at  about  the  same  time.     If 
delayed  too  long,  the  stems  of  the  trees  will  be  slender  and  feeble. 
If  done  too  soon,  the  effect  of  shade  in  carrying  up  the  tree  is  lost. 
No  fixed  rules  can  be  given  for  thinning,  and  the  judgment  of  the 
forester  with  the  conditions  before  him  should  be  the  principal  guide. 
As  a  general  fact,  the  conifers  require  less  space  than  deciduous 
trees. 

188.  It  is  an  excellent  practice  in  the  planting  of  valuable  kinds, 
that  we  wish  to  have  grow  straight  and  high,  to  place  them  in  al- 
ternate rows,  and  in  alternate  places  in  the  rows,  with  other  trees 
of  more  rapid  growth,  but  it  may  be  of  less  value.     The  latter  may 
be  taken  out  when  their  shelter  and  protection  are  no  longer  needed, 


Seedling  Plants  from  the  Forest.  51 

and  when  tne  kinds  we  wish  to  preserve  have  grown  so  as  to  soon 
shade  the  whole  of  the  ground. 

189.  The  oak  is  found  to  thrive  exceedingly  well  while  young 
when  thus  surrounded  by  pines.     The  willow  and  the  cottouwood 
arc  excellent  nurses  for  other  trees,  such  as  the  walnut  and  the  ash. 
In  alternate  rows  of  willows  and  walnuts,  the  latter  were  found  at 
four  years'  growth  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  to  be  from  three  to  five 
feet  high  and  very  thrifty,  while  in  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun  they 
were  but  eighteen  inches  high  and  very  scrubby. 

Tlie  Planting  of  Young  Trees  from  the  Forest. 

190.  In  transplanting  native  seedlings  from  the  woods,  we  should 
select   those   that   are  somewhat  separate  from  the  rest,  and  best 
exposed  to  the  air  and  light.     If  taken  from  a  dense  shade  into  the 
full  light  of  day,  the  change  may  be  too  severe,  even  where  the  ut- 
most care  is  taken  to  prevent  exposure  of  the  roots  to  the  air — a  pre- 
caution in  which  we  can  not  be  too  careful. 

191.  The  roots  should  be  at  once  dipped  in  a  puddle  of  rich  soil, 
and  packed  in  a  box,  standing  upright,  but  not  too  close,  and  only 
one  course  in  a  box.     They  should  not  be  too  closely  covered  from 
the  air,  and  should  be  set  with  as  little  delay  as  possible  in  nursery 
rows,  or  for  permanence,  the  place  being  previously  well  prepared. 
Wild  conifers  should  be  cultivated  two  or  three  years  before  final  set- 
ting.    The  process  of  taking  them  from  their  native  place  is  much 
more  likely  to  succeed  when  the  air  is  humid,  as  in  foggy  and  low- 
ering weather,  and  is  greatly  jeopardized  by  a  cold  dry  wind. 

192.  The  trees  taken  small,  and  with  an  abundance  of  fibrous 
roots,  are  much  more  likely  to  succeed  than  those  of  a  large  size. 
They  will  get  a  better  start,  and  in  a  few  years  equal  and  surpass 
those  that  were  transplanted  at  a  more  advanced  age.     In  most 
kinds,  it  is  necessary  to  shorten  the  branches  so  that  they  may  bear 
some  proportion  to  the  root.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  cover  the  wounds 
with    coal-tar  or  paint,  but   quite   often   the   buds  start   out   and 
branches  form  at  some  distance  from  the  ends,  which  dry  up  and 
finally  break  off.     It  is  a  very  common  thing  to  see  maple  and  other 
trees  set  from  the  woods  with  a  dead  stick  coming  out  among  the 
lower  branches,  it  being  the  top  of  the  original  tree.     These  should 
be  broken  or  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk,  so  as  to  allow  the  wood  on 
the  side  to  grow  over  them.     If  too  large,  and  left  too  long,  they 


52  Planting  in  the  Soil:  Transplanting. 

may  cause  a  rotten  cavity  to  form,  tending  to  make  the  tree  hollow 
and  short-lived. 

193.  In  transplanting  the  oaks  and  some  other  hard  woods,  where 
the  growth  is  languishing  and  the  shoot  is  small,  it  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  cut  off  the  stem  near  the  ground,  after  the  root  has  got 
started.     This  is  best  done  when  the  leaves  are  off,  in  fall  or  winter. 
The  shoot  that  comes  up  in  such  cases  from  the  root  will  grow  vig- 
orously and  much  more  rapidly  than  if  left  as  before. 

194.  In  "grub-prairies"  in  the  Northwestern  States,  the  soil  is 
full  of  the  roots  of  trees  and  bushes,  often  of  the  jack-oak,  hazel, 
etc.,  that  have  been  killed  back  to  the  roots  by  annual  fires.     They 
will  sprout  and  grow  if  protected  from  cattle  and  from  fires,  and 
gradually  other  kinds  will  come  in,  displaciBg  the  first  inferior  kinds 
and  formiug  a  forest  of  more  valuable  trees.     The  change  thus  pro- 
duced in  twenty  years  in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  where  these 
grub-prairies  are  chiefly  found,  is  sometimes  remarkable. 

Planting  on  the  Sod. 

195.  In  loose  and  very  damp  soils,  it  is  sometimes  found  advan- 
tageous to  plant  wholly  upon  the  surface,  by  simply  spreading  out 
the  roots  and  turning  the  surrounding  soil  over  them,  so  as  to  form 
a  little  conical  mound.     The  soil  thus  heaped  up  around  the  trees  is 
then  covered,  if  convenient,  with  mosses  or  other  non-conducting 
substances,  and  on  the  outside  some  inverted  sod. 

196.  The  trees  thus  set  should  have  no  tap  root.     An  abundance 
of  fine  fibrous  roots  may  be  secured  to  help  the  first  growth  by  sift- 
ing well-rotted  leaf-mold  over  the  roots  as  they  are  placed.     From 
careful  observation  it  is  found  that  these  mounds  retain  the  heat  of 
the  day  and  cool  slower  in  the  night — that  the  evaporation  from 
them  is  less  than  from  flat  surfaces,  and  that  there  is  a  perceptible 
disengagement  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  interior  from  the  decom- 
position going  on  in  the  grass  and  other  herbage  that  is  covered. 
This  method  enables  us  to  plant  in  places  with  less  drainage,  by  rais- 
ing the  roots  a  little  higher. 

The  Transplanting  of  young  Trees  without  Disturbing  the  Fibers  of  the 

Roots. 

197.  The  exposure  of  the  roots  of  seedlings  to  the  air,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  sun  and  to  dry  winds,  is  generally  to  be  avoided  as 


Transplanting  without  Disturbing  the  Soil.  53 

much  as  possible,  and  conifers  are  particularly  sensitive  in  this  re- 
spect. If  the  fibers  of  their  roots  are  once  dry,  they  are  generally 
injured  beyond  remedy.  In  handling  young  evergreen  seedlings, 
if  there  is  an  interruption  of  the  work  but  for  a  short  time,  the  roots 
should  be  covered  with  earth,  or  some  other  protection  should  be 
given  them  for  retaining  their  moisture  and  preventing  evap- 
oration. 

198.  This  sensitiveness  of  roots  to  the  air  has  led  to  various  de- 
vices for  removing  young  trees  and  small  seedlings  without  disturb- 
ing the  roots.     A  "bore-spade"  was  invented  many  years  ago  by 
Dr.  Heyer,  of  Giessen,  for  the  purpose  of  transplanting  young  pines, 
and  is  often  used  in  Europe  for  this  purpose.     It  consists  simply  of 
a  spade,  with  the  blade  bent  almost  into  a  cylindrical  form,  and  from 
four  to  six  inches  across  on  the  inside.     The  side  opposite  the  handle 
is  open,  so  as  pass  it  around  the  young  tree.     It  is  then  pressed 
down  with  the  foot  and  turned  around,  loosening  and  including  the 
roots  and  all  the  soil  around  them,  which  may  then  be  set  in  its  new 
place,  if  not  distant,  without  the  least  disturbance  of  the  soil  within. 
Several  thousand  plants  may  be  set  from  a  seed-bed  to  nursery  rows 
in  a  day  with  this  simple  instrument. 

199.  The  patent  office  records   in  Washington   contain  various 
other  devices  for  this  object,  in  some  of  which  two  concave  blades 
are  connected,  so  as  to  act  as  pincers,  to  embrace  a  cylindrical  ball 
of  earth  around  the  roots,  and  compress  it  as  it  is  raised. 

200.  A  simple  contrivance  consisting  of  four  spades  is  sometimes 
used,  in  which  the  blades  are  pressed  down  inside  of  a  frame  serv- 
ing as  a  fulcrum,  and  the  handles  are 

spread  apart  and  fastened  by  pins  in 
cross-pieces  passing  through  their 
handles,  as  shown  in  the  engraving 
in  the  margin.  All  of  these  methods 
are  limited  in  their  application  to 
young  trees,  and  to  those  that  are  to 
be  carried  but  short  distances.  In 
the  one  last  described,  two  sides  of 

,-,       ,,  .-,     ,     r,  ,-,       p  -,  32.  Four  Spades  in  a  portable  Frame 

the  frame  that   lorm    the  lulcrum  are     for  removing  the  Soil  with  the  Roots 

extended   out   into  handles,  so  that 

the  whole  may  be  carried  by  two  men,  like  a  burden  on  a  hand-bar- 
row. In  light  and  dry  sandy  soil,  none  of  them  would  prevent  the 


54  Transplanting  without  Disturbance  of  Soil. 

sand  from  escaping,  and  only  the  methods  described  in  §§  202  or 
203  could  be  employed.  . 

201.  For  larger  trees,  an  excavation  may  be  made,  leaving  a  mass 
of  earth,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  rather  smaller  below,  still  in  place 
and  undisturbed  around  the  roots,  and  this  may  be  bound  with 
hoops,  or  with  coarse  cloths,  so  as  to  keep  the  soil  in  place  until  the 
removal  is  finished.     We  notice,  in  §§  205  and  206,  other  methods 
in  speaking  of  the  removal  of  large  trees. 

202.  For  young  seedlings  of  cinchonas  and  other  trees  difficult  to 
transplant,  it  is  the  custom  in  India  to  start  the  seeds  in  pieces  of 
bamboo  filled  with  rich  soil,  and  at  first  set  as  close  together  as  they 
can  stand,  for  better  management  in  sprouting.     In  this  way  they 
maybe  watered,  shaded, and  otherwise  attended,  as  found  necessary, 
and  until  they  have  grown  to  a  size  that  will  enable  them  to  stand 
open  exposure  in  the  free  air.     They  are  then  taken  up,  with  the 
bamboo  shell  still  upon  them,  and  set  for  permanence,  the  roots  soon 
finding  their  way  through,  as  the  shell  decays.     These  shells  are 
three   or    four  inches  in  diameter,  and  prove  amply  sufficient  when 
cut  in  lengths  of  five  or  six  inches.     The  coffee-trees  in  Brazil  are 
started  in  earthern  jars,  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  carried  to 
the  place  of  planting  in  the  field,  and  the  contents  then  transferred 
entire  to  the  ground  where  the  trees  are  to  grow. 

203.  Slightly-made  baskets  of  strong  paper,  reeds,  bark,  rushes, 
or  thick  wood-shavings,  would  answer  the  same  purpose,  if  made 
of  perishable  material,  sufficiently  strong  to  last  till  the  removal. 
By  this  means,  with  careful  packing  and  handling,  seedling  plants 
can  be  transported  safely  to  considerable  distances.     The  expense 
would,  however,  limit  its  application  to  experimental  plantations  in 
the  way  of  acclimatization,  or  to  the  propagation  of  trees  for  orna- 
mental or  special  purposes. 

204.  Seeds  started  in  wooden  boxes,  large  enough  to  hold  a  dozen 
or  twro  of  seedlings,  may  be  kept  together  for  watering  and  attend- 
ance, occupying  no  more  space  than  so  many  plants  in  a  seed-bed, 
and  then  may  be  carried  to  the  place  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set. 
With  proper  care,  they  may  be  taken  out  with  a  curved  trowel,  and 
set  without  disturbing  the  soil.     Slight  shaving  or  pasteboard  parti- 
tions, dividing  the  box  into  compartments,  would  facilitate  the  sep- 
aration, and  prevent  the  fibers  from  interlocking.     This  method  is 
employed  in  planting  the  eucalyptus  trees  in  the  unhealthy  district 


Transplanting  of  Large   Trees.  55 

near  the  city  of  Eome.  By  any  of  these  methods  of  carrying  the 
plants  with  the  soil  still  around  the  roots,  the  operation  of  planting 
may  be  carried  on  all  summer,  and  where  the  climate  permits,  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year. 

The  Transplanting  of  Large  Trees. 

205.  This  is  always  an  expensive  and  uncertain  operation,  partic- 
ularly with  the  evergreens.    It  is  sometimes  done  with  much  success, 
where  the  tree  is  well  supplied  with  fibrous  roots  near  the  trunk,  by 
digging  a  trench  around  the  tree  at  some  distance,  in  the  fall,  and 
allowing  the  soil  to  freeze  into  a  solid  mass,  which  may  be  moved 
without  separating  it  from  the  roots.    In  such  cases,,  it  is  sometimes 
practiced  to  take  off  the  surface  soil,  if  not  already  rich,  and  to 
spread  in  its  place  other  soil  of  great  fertility,  and  to  dig  and  fill 
the  trench,  as  above  described,  with  rich  soil,  a  year  or  two  before  the 
time  of  removal.     An  abundance  of  fine  fibrous  roots  will  form  in 
such  cases  in  the  fertile  soil,  which  will  tend  to  render  the  removal 
more  certain  of  success. 

206.  In  removing  large  evergreens,  it  is  best  done  just  as  the  veg- 
etation is  starting,  by  carefully  following  out  and  taking  up  the 
roots  as  far  as  possible,  and  wrapping  them  up  in  wet  moss  or  hay 
as  fast  as  they  are  taken  out.     When  they  have  been  thus  taken 
from  the  soil,  and  protected  from  the  air,  the  tree  may  be  drawn  to 
its  new  place,  set  upright,  and  well  stayed;  the  covering  should 
then  be  removed  from  the  roots,  which  should  be  carefully  spread 
out  and  immediately  covered  with  fine  rich  damp  soil.     The  whole 
should  be  well  watered  as  soon  as  the  planting  is  finished,  and  from 
time  to  time  in  dry  weather,  until  the  roots  have  got  well  started. 

207.  It  is  generally  a  good  rule,  and  in  light  prairie  soil  absolutely 
necessary,  to  press  down  the  earth  firmly,  not  only  in  the  hole  be- 
fore the  tree  is  placed,  but  also  upon  the  roots  after  planting;  but 
in  heavy  clay  soils  this  would  do  more  harm  than  good.     As  a  rule, 
the  tree  should  be  set  deeper  than  before.     The  roots  should  not  be 
cramped  or  doubled  back,  but  as  wide  a  space  should  be  allowed  as 
they  may  need,  and  they  should  be  carefully  spread  before  being 
covered. 

208.  In  bracing  trees,  strong  wire  is  better  than  cords,  which  are 
apt  to  shrink  when  wet,  and  blocks  of  wood  should  be  placed  where 
they  are  fastened  to  the  tree,  to  prevent  them  from  galling  the  bark. 


56          Transplanting  of  Large   Trees  and  Cuttings. 

Heavy  stones  placed  over  the  roots  will  sometimes  serve  to  keep 
them  steady,  as  well  as  to  keep  the  soil  from  drying.  A  mulching 
of  straw  or  litter  from  the  woods  is  always  useful,  and  sometimes 
necessary,  to  keep  the  ground  moist,  and  to  screen  it  from  the  sun. 
Decaying  wood-chips  afford  a  most  excellent  top-dressing  around 
trees  of  every  kind. 

209.  Trees  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  grass.     A  firm 
sod  prevents  the  air  and  rains  from  penetrating  the  soil.     A  thin 
covering  of  stable  manure  over  the  roots  of  trees  in  winter  will  have 
an  excellent  effect  upon  the  next  year's  growth.     Various  mineral 
salts,  such  as  the  nitrate  of  soda,  and  the  phosphate  of  lime,  as  well 
as  guano  and  other  fertilizers,  may  sometimes  be  used  to  great  advan- 
tage in  nurseries  and  orchards,  and  in  ornamental  plantations  gen- 
erally, but  are  usually  too  expensive  for  profitable  forest-culture. 

Tlie  Disadvantages  of  Planting  Cottonwood,  and  otJier  Trees,  from  Cut- 
tings of  too  great  Size. 

210.  In  the  Western  States,  in  Colorado  and  elsewhere,  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  set  out  poles  of  cotton  wood,  and  of  some  of  the  other 
poplars  and  the  willows,  of  considerable  size,  and  without  root  or 
branch.     In  some  cases,  telegraph  poles  of  cottonwood  have  thus 
taken  root  and  become  trees,  where  the  soil  was  damp  and  all  the 
conditions  of  growth  were  favorable. 

211.  But  it  has  been  found  that  such  trees  generally  become  hol- 
low in  a  few  years,  and  are  short  lived.     The  reason  is  obvious. 
The  end  in  the  ground  readily  absorbs  moisture  and  decays,  for  it 
can  never  grow  over  like  the  wound  formed  on  the  trunk,  after  the 
amputation  of  a  branch,  and  will  remain  exposed  to  all  the  agencies 
that  cause  decay,  however  vigorous  the  new  growth  may  be  around 
it.    The  top  of  such  a  pole  will  become  dry,  and  the  buds  that  start 
from  the  sides  will  come  out  at  some  distance  below  the  end.    This 
dead  part  finally  become  quite  rotten,  leaving  a  cavity  that  grad- 
ually extends  down  the  trunk  till  it  meets  the  one  that  is   com- 
ing up  from  below.    The  success  that  such  trees  promise  for  the  first 
few  years  is  generally  illusory,  and  it  would  be  much  more  satisfac- 
tory to  take  smaller  cuttings,  which  would,  when  well  supplied  with 
moisture,  make  a  very  rapid  growth,  and  remain  sound  throughout. 
They  might  even  overtake  and  surpass  those  that  were  planted  of 


Planting  of  Slopes  and  Banks.  57 

large  size,  and  they  will  certainly  outlive  them  in  almost  every 

instance. 

Planting  of  Rocky  Surfaces. 

212.  It  is  one  of  the  peculiar  merits  of  Forest-culture,  that  it  may 
be  practiced  upon  broken  and  rocky  surfaces  that  could  not  be  plowed, 
or  scarcely  pastured,  provided  always  that  there  is  depth  and  quan- 
tity of  soil  among  the  stones,  and  in  the  crevices,  to  give  a  hold  to 
the  roots  of  the  trees,  and  moisture  enough  in  the  soil  to  afford  them 
adequate  support. 

213.  No  general  rule  can  be  given  for  the  starting  of  woodlands 
upon  such  surfaces,  where  so  much  depends  upon  the  circumstances. 
In  doing  this,  it  is  well  to  study  the  indications  afforded  by  nature, 
in  the  casual  growth  of  trees  in  the  region  around,  or  the  experi- 
ence gained  by  artificial  planting.     The  yield  in  growth  of  wood 
upon  such  stony  surfaces  may  sometimes  be  equal   to  that  upon 
smooth  level  land,  and  return  a  fair  profit,  where  nothing  else  could 
be  raised. 

214.  In  planting  upon  a  hill-side  of  moderate  declivity,  it  is  gen- 
erally preferable  to  plow  the  land  and  to  set  the  rows  of  trees  in 
Lnes  parallel  with  the  base,  or  at  right  angles  with  the  slope.     The 
reason  of  this  is,  that  the  soil  becomes  less  exposed  to  the  wash  of 
the  rains,  when  so  cultivated.     The  water  from  rains  and  melting 
snows  is  held  in  place,  and  tends  to  sink  into  the  earth,  instead  of 
running  off  on  the  surface. 

215.  Upon  very  steep  declivities  of  friable  and  decomposing  rock, 
it  is  sometimes  practicable  to  secure  sufficient  soil  for  the  roots  of 
trees,  by  digging  horizontal  terraces  or  notches  at  convenient  inter- 
vals, securing  their  outer  edge  with  brush  held  in  place  with  pegs. 
In  a  year  or  two  these  notches  will  have  probably  become  filled  up 
by  the  crumbling  away  of  the  rock  above,  and  in  the  soil  thus 
lormed  trees  may  be  planted  with  a  prospect  of  success. 

216.  This  form   of   planting   becomes  necessary  in  restoring  a 
wooded  covering  to  eroded  mountain  sides.     Besides  its  use  in  re- 
boisemeut,  as  described  on  a  subsequent  page,  it  might  sometimes 
be  used  with  advantage  to  secure  the  soil  upon  crumbling  banks  that 
overhang  highways  and  railroads,  and  in  other  situations  where 
danger  may  be  expected  from  the  sliding  or  washing  of  the  soil. 


58  Management  after  Planting. 

Mulching. 

pi7.  In  transplanting  trees  in  a  dry  season,  and  especially  in  a 
dry  climate,  it  is  often  necessary  to  place  on  the  surface  a  covering 
of  straw,  litter,  or  other  porous  material,  to  protect  the  ground  from 
the  heating  and  drying  influences  of  the  sun  and  the  winds.  It 
also  has  an  effect  in  preventing  the  growth  of  grass  and  other  herb- 
age, and  to  retain  the  moisture  of  rains.  In  a  very  dry  climate,  it 
may  be  found  the  only  means  by  which  trees  may  be  made  to  sur- 
vive the  trial  of  the  first  one  or  two  seasons,  and  it  may  need  to  be 
continued  until  the  ground  is  well  shaded. 

It  was  found  on  the  college  farm  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  that  the 
soft  maple  grew  in  much  more  regular  shape,  and  more  thriftily, 
when  planted  singly  and  for  shade  trees,  where  the  ground  around 
them  was  well  covered  with  mulching,  and  the  stems  protected  by 
wild  grass  or  other  substances  tied  around  them  to  keep  off  the  sun. 
When  not  so  treated,  the  tops  grew  one-sided,  and  the  trees  soon 
died.  Examples  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely  to  prove  the  ben- 
efits to  be  derived  from  this  practice,  both  in  regard  to  fruit  and 
forest  trees.  Of  course,  when  this  becomes  an  absolute  requirement 
of  the  climate,  the  cultivation  of  forests  for  profit  is  wholly  unprof- 
itable, and  it  must  be  limited  to  orchards  and  ornamental  planting. 

Of  TJdnning. 

218.  As  elsewhere  repeatedly  stated,  trees  should  be  made  to 
form  a  straight  and  tall  body  while  young,  by  being  somewhat 
closely  planted,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  crowd  too  closely.  A 
part  must  be  taken  out  from  time  to  time,  to  give  the  remainder  a 
chance  at  the  air.  and  light.  It  should  begin  when  we  see  it  is 
needed,  and  is  best  done  at  one  time  for  a  given  piece  of  woodland, 
rather  than  irregularly.  The  intervals  of  time  must  be  regulated 
by  circumstances,  and  should  be  greater  as  the  trees  become  large. 
The  only  general  rule  to  be  followed  is,  that  the  trees  should  not  be 
allowed  to  interlock  their  branches,  and  that  the  ground  should  be 
at  all  times  well  shaded.  The  effect  is  realized  within  a  year  or 
two  in  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  branches  that  hasten  to  fill  up 
the  void  spaces  thus  formed,  and  in  the  increased  volume  of  the 
wood  that  is  formed. 


Management  after  Planting. 


59 


Trimming  and  Pruning. 

219.  Where  forests  are  cultivated  ou  a  large  scale,  and  for  profit, 
nothing  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  pruning.     This  must  be  left  to 
natural  agencies,  and  if  a  proper  density  of  growth  is  maintained, 
it  will  take  care  of  itself.     But  in  small  groves,  and  especially  in 
avenues  of  trees  by  the  roadside,  or  plantations  around  dwellings, 
or  in  village  streets  and  city  parks,  the  growth  and  appearance  of 
the  trees  may  be  greatly  improved  by  judicious  attention. 

220.  It  is  preferable  to  cut  off  a  branch  close  to  the  tree,  rather 
than  to  leave  a  stub.     The  incision  should  be  left  as  smooth  as  pos- 
sible, and  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  cover  the 

wound  with  coal  tar.  If  left  to  rot  off,  the 
branch  may  form  a  wround  like  the  one  shown 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  annexed  cut  ;  but  if 
smoothly  cut  off,  it  may  close  up  completely  in 
a  few  years.  These  cavities  may  extend  down 
to  the  root,  and  they  not  only  shorten  the  life  of 
a  tree,  but  tend  to  render  its  timber  worthless. 
Where  large  cavities  are  thus  formed  in  a  favor- 
ite tree,  the  injury  may  be  somewhat  delayed  by 
covering  the  opening  with  heavily  painted  canvas 
or  other  material  that  will  conceal  somewhat  the 
deformity,  and  keep  out  the  rain. 

221.  In  cutting  off  large  branches,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  first  make  an  incision  on  the  under  side, 
so  as  to  prevent  it  from  tearing  down  the  side  of 
the  tree  as  it  falls.     The  annexed  cut,  at  A  and 
B,  shows  the  way  this  can  be  done.     After  the 
branch    is    off,    the    stump    can    be    smoothed 
off,  so  as  to  leave  a  clean  incision.     It  is  found 
very  advantageous  to   apply  coal   tar   to   such 
wounds. 

222.  The  season  of  the  year  has  much  to  do 
with  the  success  of  pruning.    It  should  generally 
be  done  after  the  growth  of  the  season  has  been 
formed,  and  close  to  the  trunk.     If  left  in  pegs, 
they  will  disfigure  the  iree,  and  heal  over  with 
difficulty.     The  unsightly  growth  shown  in  the 


A  Wound  well 
healed  and  one 
badly  healed  in 
Timber. 


34.  Proper  Mode  of 
cutting  off  Large 
Branches. 


35.  Tree  that  has  been 
lute  in  sum- 


60 


Trimming  and  Pruning. 


36.  A  Tree  that  has 
been  Pruned  somo 
distance  from  the 
Trunk. 


annexed  engraving  is  very  common  in  the  button-wood,  when  care- 
lessly pruned,  or  otherwise  injured. 

223.  As  for  dead  branches,  such  as  we  often 
see  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunks  of  coniferous 
trees,  they  may  be  cut  at  all  seasons,  and  the 
sooner  the  better,  if  we  would  improve  the  qual- 
ity of  their  wood.     It  becomes,  however,  in  ex- 
tensive  woodlands   an   expensive    process,   and 
practically  it  must  be  left  to  nature,  excepting 
in  a  favorite  grove,  or  in  avenues  or  upon  lawns. 

224.  In  all  forest  operations,  it  is  needless  to 
remark,   that  the  use  of  climbing  spurs,  like 

those  employed  in  repairing  telegraphs,  must  be  wholly  forbidden, 
as  they  do  irreparable  injuries  to  the  bark  and  the  wood,  and  the 
laws  should  protect  owners  from  their  unauthorized  use  by  any  one, 
upon  any  occasion. 

225.  The  tools  most  used  in  pruning  are  the  saw,  with  a  wide  set, 
hand-shears,  priming- 
shears,  pruning-chisels, 
attached  to  long  han- 
dles, with  an  edge  that 
cuts  in  drawing  as  well 
as  in  pushing,  the  com- 
mon ax,  and  various 
other  implements.  A 
tool  much  used  in 
France  is  the  serpe, 

which  consists  of  a  heavy  blade,  with  both 
edges  sharp,  and  attached  to  a  short  handle. 
It  is  carried  in  a  leather  case,  slung  over  the 
shoulder,  and  is  used  very  skillfully.  For 
small  branches,  they  cut  by  an  upward  stroke. 
226.  In  trimming  poplars  and  willows,  the 
whole  top  of  the  tree  is  sometimes  cut  off. 
Such  trees  are  called  "Pollards."  They  should 


37.  Hand-Shears,  for 
Pruning. 


39.  The  Serpe. 


38.  Pruning-Phears,  for  at- 
taching to  u  long  Handle. 


40.   Pruning  Chisels. 


be  cut  off  just  above  where  the  lower  branches  separate,  and  not  as 
shown  in  the  middle  figure  bjj  the  line  at  A.  Such  trees  will  restore 
themselves  without  showing  the  effect  of  the  injury,  as  shown  in  the 
right-hand  figure,  if  properly  cut.  The  practice  tends  to  render 


Pollards:  Control  of  Shapes  in  the  Growth.          61 


trees  hollow  and  unsightly  objects,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  not  with- 
out advantages.     Along  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  in  New  Mexico,  it 


41.  Improper  Mode  of 
Cutting  Pollards. 


42,  43.  Proper  Modes  of  Cutting  Pollards. 


has  long  been  the  practice  to  thus  cut  back  the  tops  of  cottonwoods 
in  order  to  obtain  fuel. 

227.  A  great  advantage  is  gained  in  some  cases  by  fore-shortening 
the  branches  by  trimming  off  their  ends,  so  as  to  give  the  top  a  more 
symmetrical  form,  and  a  denser  growth.     This  practice  has  been 
very  fully  described,  and  its  advantages  shown  by  the  Count  Des 
Cars,  in  France,  and  previously  by  the  Viscount  de  Courval.     When 
applied  to  the  oak,  it  has  sometimes  led  to  remarkable  success  in 
growth,  and  in  ornamental  planting  it  may  be  sometimes  applied  to 
great  advantage.1 

228.  In  Italy  the  olive  is  thus  cut  back  to  secure  a  more  vigorous 
growth  of  the  young  wood,  and  the  trunk  often  becomes  hollow,  but 
it  will  survive  the  injuries  for  a  long  time.     The  marbled  and 
gnarled  appearance  of  the  grain  of  this  wood,  as  often  seen  in  orna- 
mental work,  is  chiefly  from  this  cause.     The  knotted  heads  of  pol- 
lard poplar  trunks  are  sometimes  cut  into 

thin  plates  for  fancy  work,  and  produce  a 
beautiful  effect. 

*J  229.  An  upright  growth  may  be  secured 
fey  lopping  off  the  side  branches,  and  bend- 
ing the  more  promising  ones  upright,  secur- 
ing by  a  pole  lashed  to  the  tree,  or  driven 
into  the  ground,  and  sometimes  by  binding 
one  branch  around  another,  as  shown  in  the 
adjacent  cuts. 

1Full  accounts  of  this  method  and  its  results  may  be  found  in  our  first  Re- 
port upon  Forestry  (1877),  pp.  92,  93,  98. 


44.  Modes  of  securing  an 
Upright  Growth. 


62  Removal  of  Outer  Bark:  Arbor  Days. 

Stimulation  of  the  Groivth  of  Trees  by  removal  of  outer  Baric. 

230.  Sometimes  the  peeling  off  of  the  outer  bark  of  fruit  trees 
will  stimulate  their  growth.     The  operation  should  be  performed 
just  as  the  cambium  layer  is  forming,  which  is  generally  in  the 
latter  part  of  June,  in  the  Northern  States.     The  cork  tree  is  found 
in  Southern  Europe  to  thrive  under  peeling,  and  where  elms  in  Paris 
and  elsewhere  have  been  shaved  down  to  the  live  bark,  in  the  Robert 
process,  for  destroying  the  larvse  of  insects,  they  have  taken  a  new 
start  afterwards. 

Arbor  Days. 

231.  A  pleasant  custom  was  introduced  in  Nebraska,  about  1874, 
at  the  instance  of  the  State  Horticultural  Society,  of  devoting  one 
day  in  spring  to  the  planting  of  trees.     The  2d  Wednesday  of  April 
was  designated,  and  it  is  claimed  that  12  millions  of  trees  were  set 
on  that  day  in  that  state.     In  Minnesota,  the  State  Forestry  Asso- 
ciation designated  Tuesday,  the  18th  of  May,  i876,  for  this  purpose, 
and  1,342,886  trees  were  reported  as  planted  on  that  day.     In  the 
Year  following,  the  number  was  442,558.     The  Governor  of  Mich- 
igan, by  proclamation  dated  February  22,  1876,  recommended  that 
the  15th  of  April  be  devoted  to  planting  trees,   but  we  have  no 
data  as  to  the  result.     The  Governor  of  Ohio  appointed  an  Arbor 
Day  to  be  observed  on  the  27th  of  April,  1882. 

231^.  The  custom  is  admirable  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is  liable  to 
interruption  from  stormy  weather,  or  seasons  unusually  early  or 
backward,  and  in  the  granting  of  premiums  for  greatest  number,  or 
best  success,  it  would  be  much  better  to  have  them  apply  to  the 
whole  season,  leaving  the  day  to  be  fixed  by  the  planter  as  suited  his 
convenience,  and  as  weather  favored. 


Formation  and  Functions  of  the 


CHAPTER  VII.  CUim 


OF   THE    STRUCTURE   AND    FUNCTIONS    OF 
GROWING   TREES. 

TJie  Formation  and  Functions  of  the  Buds. 

232.  In  common  deciduous  trees,  there  begins  to  form,  in  mid- 
summer, in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  a  little  cellular  mass, 
communicating  with  a  medullary  ray,  partly  covered  by 

the  bark,  and  usually  protected  by  imbricating  scales. 
From  these  buds  or  germs,  the  leaves  and  blossoms  of  the 
next  season  are  to  grow.  The  leaf-buds  are  usually  more 
sharp  and  slender  than  the  flower-buds,  a  circumstance 
quite  noticeable  upon  the  elm,  and  upon  many  fruit  trees. 

233.  The  end  of  a  twig  is  always  terminated  by  a  bud, 
which  advances  as  the  twig  extends   in   length,  by  the 
formation  of  new  cells  within.     Trees  and  their  branches 
increase  in  length  and  height  by  the  formation  of  these 
new   cells   under   the   terminal   bud,  and   elongate  only 
during   the   season   of  active   vegetation,  in   spring  and 
early  summer.     The  annexed  engravings,  from  Rossmass- 
ler,  represent  sections  of  four  kinds  of  buds.     The  first  is 

a  double  one  of  leaf  and  flower,  and  the  fourth  is  a  flower-  4~i.  Buds  of 
bud  only.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  rudiments  of  the  future 


the  Elm. 


Sections  of  Buds  :  1.  The  Pine  ;  2.  The  Bird  Cherry ;  3.  The  Oak  -  and   4 

Aspen. 


64 


Classification  of  Leaves  :  Chlorophyll. 


growth  are  obscurely  foreshadowed  in  these  embryo  forms,  to  be 
displayed  in  full  maturity,  when  the  conditions  favor  —  usually  in 
spring,  but  exceptionally  in  autumn.  The  latter  cases  are  rare, 
and  occur  only  when  a  very  dry  summer  is  followed  by  a  very  mild, 
humid  autumn. 

Structure  and  Function  of  the  Leaves. 

234.  Leaves  are  the  respiratory  organs  of  plants.     The  juices  are 
there  brought  in  contact  with  the  air,  when  certain  chemical  changes 
occur  that  fit  them  for  the  processes  of  assimilation  that  transform 
them  into  every  part  of  the  growing  tree  or  plant. 

235.  Trees  present  an  infinite  variety  of  forms  in  their  leaves, 

but  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes  :  the  linear, 

or  acicular  form  (sometimes  shortened  into  imbricat- 

ing scales),    that   distinguish 

the  coniferous  order,  and,  with 

a  few  exceptions,  remain  green 

during   the  winter;    and   the 

broad-leaved  form,  supported 

by  a  network  of  ribs,  and,  in 

temperate  and   cold  climates, 

generally    falling     from     the 

trees    upon    the   approach   of 

winter.     The  latter  are  termed 

deciduous,  when  they  fall  from 

tne   tre6S  *n    autumn>  but  tni§ 

small  number  of  the  linear-leaved  class,  such  as  the 
larch  and  the  bald  cypress.  A  leaf-stem  is  called  a  petiole,  and 
when  there  is  no  stem  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  sessile. 

236.  The  framework  of  a  leaf  is  filled  in  with  a  cellular  structure, 
and  these  cells  are  filled  with  a  green  matter,  in  the  form  of  small 
grains,  called  chlorophyll,  and  which,  appearing  through  the  trans- 
parent walls  of  the  cells,  give  the  leaves    their   green  color.     In 
most  leaves,  the  upper  side  is  more  charged  with  chlorophyll  than 
the  lower,  and  is  therefore  of  a  deeper  green.     The  form  of  these 
cells  in  the  beech  leaf  are  shown  in   the  annexed  engraving,1  in 
which  oo  is  the  upper  side,  and  uu  the  under  side  ;  o,  the  principal 


47   Leaves  of  the 

Pine. 


48'  Leaf  of  the  Mulberry" 

term   a^so   applies   to  a 


1  From  Kossmassler. 


Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Leaves. 


65 


cells  of  chlorophyll ;  /  are  air  spaces ;  u,  minute  masses  of  chloro- 
phyll, thus  brought  in  near  contact;  and  sp,  "  stomata"  or  breathing 
pores,  through  which  the  air  enters.  These  pores  are  chiefly 


tfv 


49.  Vertical  Section  of  a  Beech  Leaf,  very  greatly  enlarged. 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  vary  in  number  from  1,000  to 
170,000  to  a  square  inch.  In  coniferous  leaves  tfrere  is  no  network 
of  ribs,  but  a  longitudinal  and  sometimes  a  diverging  system  of 
fibers.  A  cross-section  shows  a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  cells, 
some  filled  with  grains  of  chlorophyll,  others  with  air,  and  others 
with  resinous  matter.  The  arrangement  of  these  cells  is  constant 
within  genera,  and  to  some  extent  in  species,  affording  character- 
istics upon  which  classifications  have  been  formed.  The  stomata 
upon  coniferous  leaves  are  more  abundant  upon  the  under  and  lighter 
colored  side  of  the  leaves,  but  in  some  cases  where  both  sides  are 
colored  alike,  they  are  found  equally  on  both  sides.  The  ginkgo 
(Salisbaria  adiantifolia)) ,  one  of  the  Japanese  species  that  is  found 
to  thrive  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  is  a  conifer  with  very 
exceptional  form  of  leaf.  It  spreads  out  flat  like  a  fan,  and  is  de- 
ciduous. 

237.  The  moisture  of  the  soil,  is  brought  up  in  the  form  of  sap 
from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  bearing  in  solution  certain  mineral  and 
organic  materials.  These  are  then  exposed  to  the  air,  and  to  the 
carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  and  under  the  action  of  the  light  the  latter 
is  decomposed.  Its  carbon  is  retained  and  oxygen  given  out.  A 
vast  amount  of  evaporation  also  takes  place  from  the  leaves,  so  that 


66 


Structure  of  Leaves  and  of  Wood. 


as  the  sap  descends  under  the  bark  it  is  much  less  watery,  and  is 
charged  with  the  materials  that  by  assimilation  may  form  the  new 
layer  of  wood,  and  every  growing  part  of  the  whole  structure. 

238.  The  materials  thus  won  from  the  earth  and  the  air,  are  added 
to  the  tree,  as  it  gains  in  size,  or  dropped  to  the  earth  with  the  fall- 
ing leaves  and  the  fruit  —  the  leaves  to  add  fertility  to  the  soil,  and 
the  seeds  of  the  fruit  to  furnish  germs  for  new  creations  of  the 
parent  type. 

239.  The  form  and  size  of  leaves  may  vary  at  different  ages  of  the 
tree  and  upon  different  parts  of  the  same  tree  at  the  same  time.  Upon 
thrifty  young  sprouts  they  are  generally  larger  than  upon  the  old 
branches.    As  a  rule  they  become  smaller  at  great  elevations.     In  the 
eucalyptus,  the  young  trees  bear  heart-shaped  and  horizontal  leaves, 
and  the  old  trees  sickle-formed  leaves  that  stand  in  a  vertical  plane,  ex- 
posing both  sides  to  the  light,  and  shading  the  ground  but  little.    The 
upper  leaves  upon  the  holly  are  less  notched  and  less  spiny,  when  the 
tree  becomes  old.     In  certain  of  the  cedars,  cypresses,  and  other  con- 
ifers with  imbricating  leaves,  the  scales  may  at  certain  stages  of  growth 
elongate  into  linear  leaves,  very  different  from  the  more  usual  form. 
The  same  tree  may  present  both  forms  at  the  same  time,  but  the  linear 
leaves  are  more  common  upon  young  trees  than  upon  old  ones.     In 
certain  forms  of  disease,  the  linear  form  is  sometimes  assumed  by 
these  imbricating  leaves. 

Structure  of  the  Wood  and  Bark. 

240.  The  trunk  of  an  exogenous  tree  shows  three  distinct  kinds 
of  structure.     In  the  twig  of  oak  of  one  year's  growth,  we  find  the 

inner  part  is  filled  with  the  pith,  m, 
m  an  extremely  light  cellular  body 
which   appears    essential    to   new 
K  growth,  and  is  always  present  in  a 
e   twig  covered  with  leaves;   but  in 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  it  becomes 
nearly  or  quite  obliterated,  and  in 
fact  may  perish  altogether  without 
apparently  affecting  the  growth  of 
the  tree.     The  pith  or  medulla  is 

50.  Cross-secti^IfanOakTwigofone  surrounded   by  a  sheath   of  hard 

cellular  tissue,  and  outside  of  this 


Year's  Growth.(i) 


1Thi«?  nnd  tlio  two  following  figures  are  from  Rossmassler's  work — "Der 


Structure  of  Wood. 


67 


is  a  layer  of  wood,  h,  which  from  the  first  shows  a  radiating  struc- 
ture— the  beginning  of  the  "  medullary  rays."  Outside  of  the  wood, 
there  is  formed  the  cambium  layer,  c,  which  is  to  become  a  Dew 
layer  of  wood.  Next  a  "bast"  layer,  or  inner  bark,  b,  beyond  which 
is  the  bark,  r,  of  coarse  cellular  structure,  and  over  all  an  epider- 
mis, o,  covering  every  part. 

241.  When  the  wood  has  made  two  years  of  growth,  the  cross- 
section  shows  the  structure  represented  in  the  annexed  engraving, 
in  which  m  (upper  side) 

includes  the  pith  —  m' ', 
the  spongy  portion,  and 
m  (lower  side)  the  "me- 
dullary sheath."  The 
wood,  h,  is  the  growth 
of  two  years,  and  is  sep- 
arated by  the  line,  jj. 
The  cambium  layer  is 
shown  at  c,  and  outside 
of  this  is  the  bark.  Fig- 
ures 1  to  7  Show  the  51.  Structure  of  Oak  at  two  Years  of  Age. 
medullary  rays,  which  are  continued  outward  through  the  wood  and 
into  the  bark-J^  The  cross-section,  Q,  the  radial  section,  Sp,  and  tan- 
gential section,  Sc,  show  the  relation  which  these  rays  (called  by  car- 
penters the  "silver  grain")  bear  to  the  other  parts.  In  the  oak 
these  rays  are  very  conspicuous.  They  are  also  very  apparent  but 
of  much  smaller  size  in  the  beech,  plane  tree,  maple,  etc.,  while  in 
other  trees  they  are  scarcely  to  be  seen. 

242.  The  medullary  sheath  and  rays  are  composed  of  condensed 
cellular  tissue,  and  although  generally  the  latter  extend  through  in 
a  radial  line  from  the  sheath  to  the  bark,  and  into  it,  there  are  many 
secondary  rays  that  form  in  the  wood,  and  have  no  connection  with 
the  pith,  or  with  the  other  rays.     In  the  conifers,  these  rays  become 
reduced  to  lines  in  parallel  bauds,  too  minute  to  be  seen  without  a 
microscope  of  high  magnifying  powers. 

243.  As  wood  is  seen  under  the  microscope,  it  is  made  up  of 
elongated  cells  overlapping  each  other,  and  adhering  by  their  sides. 
They  present  a  great  variety  of  forms,  which  are  often  peculiar  to 
the  families  or  orders  to  which  they  belong.     Among  these  fibers, 
there  are  u  umerous  ducts  and  passages.     Some  COM  tain  only  air,  others 


68 


Structure  of  Wood. 


in  their  season  sap,  and  others  the  resinous  or  other  secretions  of 
g  m  pr        g     p  pr     the   tree.      Upon    the 

length  and  adherence 
of  these  various  vessels, 
thesolidity  and  strength 
of  wood  depends.  The 
accompanying  figure 
represents  a  longitudi- 
nal section  of  beech, 
magnified  200  diame- 
ters. In  this  g  repre- 
sents dotted  vessels ; 
_p,  short  cells  with  very 
abrupt  end?;  pr,  elon- 
gated cells  with  oblique 
ends ;  m,  sections 
through  the  medullary 
rays,  and  q,  examples 
of  the  long  aunulated 
cells  appearing  in  the  sections  like  rows  of  spots. 

244.  Different  kinds  of  wood  exhibit  the  radiating  structures  due 
to  the  medullary  rays  in  different  degrees.  In  some,  it  is  very  con- 
spicuous in  the  cross-section,  while,  in  others,  it  can  scarcely  be 
traced  by  the  eye,  except  in  thin  cross-sections,  although  always  to 
be  seen  under  the  microscope. 


S      q  S  m  g      P      qqq 

52.  Vertical  Section  of  Beech  Wood,  in  a  Plane  tan- 
gent to  Rings  of  Annual  Growth. 


53.  Different  appearances  of  the  Medullary  Rays. 


Structure  of  Wood. 


245.  In  many  kinds  of  the  "  hard-woods,"  and  especially  in  the 
oak,  ash,  elm,  etc.,  each  annual  layer  is  more  spongy  and  porous  on 
the  inner  side,  and  harder  on  the  outer  side.     The  former  is  some- 
times called  the  spring  and  the  latter  the  autumnal  growth.     This 
autumnal  growth  is,  however,  formed  in  the  summer,  and  its  dens- 
ity and  relative  thickness  appears  to  depend  upon  the  character  of 
the  season  that  follows  after  it  has  been  deposited.     If  it  remains 
humid  and  cold,  it  will  be  less  dense  than  if  it  be  dry  and  warm. 
The  amount  of  growth  for  the  year  is  usually  determined  by  the 
weather  in  the  spring  and  early  summer. 

246.  In  exceptional  cases,  such  as  an  early  and  protracted   drouth, 
followed  by  heavy  rains  and  a  warm  autumn,  a  second  growth  may 
start ;  the  buds  may  expand  into  leaves,  and  blossoms  may  appear. 
In  such  cases,  it  is  possible  for  a  double  ring  of  growth  to  form,  but 
it  will  not  be  entirely  distinct  in  every  part.     Such  an  autumn,  if 
it  is  followed  by  a  cold  winter,  is  very  apt  to  prove  fatal  to  trees,  or 
at  least  to  check  their  growth  for  a  time,  if  it  does  not  destroy  them. 

247.  In  tropical  woods,  the   ^ 

annual  layers  are  obscure,  and  lljZ&ff^., 
the  age  of  a  tree  can  not  be 

k'&Sf^M^f^i:";'/-' 


'  *>•  .-V^- '  v-*-. 

ascertained  from  them. 

248.  In  the  soft-woods,  there  £S:v4j:Sp 
is  scarcely  any  difference   be- 

txvppn  tliplavpr<5    inrl  flip  «;pnn-54-  Section  of  Mahogany,  showing  indistinct 
ia\  ers,  ai  Layers  of  Growth  in  a  Tropical  Wood. 

ration  between  the  growth  of 

different  years  is  sometimes  difficult  to  find. 

249.  Deciduous  trees,  when  stripped  of  their  leaves,  as  sometimes 
occurs  from  insect  ravages,  will  put  forth  a  new  crop,  from  the  buds 
intended  for  the  next  season.     The  formation  of  wood  is  thereby 
greatly  checked,  and   the  foliation  of  the  next  season  weakened. 
The  chance  of  blossoms  for  the  coming  year  may  also  be  ruined. 

250.  In  cross-sections  made  years 
afterwards,  the  record  of  the  sea- 
sous  for  a  long  period  may  be  de- 
termined, at  least  in  effect,  by  the 
width    of    the    rings    of    annual 

growth.      We    sometimes    find,    at  55.  Effect  of  Different -Seasons  upon  the 

Growth  of  A\  ood. 

recurring  intervals,  a  narrow  ring, 

perhaps  in  every  third  year,  that  may  have  been  caused  by  the  loss 


70 


Structure  of  Wood. 


of  leaves  from  worms  that  appear  at  that  interval,  and  that  have 
thus  left  their  record  when  every  other  proof  of  their  presence  has 
perished.  We  have  seen  sections  of  trees  in  the  museums  of  Schools 
of  Forestry,  in  which  these  proofs  were  recorded  through  a  century 
or  more  of  time,  and  the  years  could  be  definitely  fixed  by  counting 
inward  from  the  year  when  the  tree  was  felled. 

251.  As  a  rule,  the  most  favorable  seasons  for  the  growth  of  wood 
are  those  that  are  warm,  cloudy,  and  humid  in  the  early  part  of 
summer,  followed  by  very  warm  and  dry  weather.  The  maturing 
process  in  the  newly-formed  wood  appears  to  be  due  to  the  excess 
of  evaporation  from  the  leaves,  as  compared  with  the  absorption 
from  the  roots,  resulting  in  a  hardening  of  the  tissues,  and  an  im- 
provement in  the  quality  of  the  new  wood.  Where  the  season 
continues  wet,  this  hardening  does  not  take  place,  and  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  severely  cold  winter,  the  growth  may  be  checked  for 
the  season  following,  or  the  trees  may  be  killed  altogether,  or  at 
least  the  branches  of  younger  growth. 

In  fact,  so  many  causes  affect  the  amount  of  growth  in  different 
years  that  there  may  be  as  much  difference  as  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing engravings : 


56.  Differences  in  the  Amount  of  Annual  Growth  of  Wood. 

Upon  irrigated  land,  in  Colorado,  the  cotton  wood  has  been  known 
to  grow  to  a  diameter  of  fourteen  inches. in  eight  years.  If  grown 
in  rich,  humid  soil,  but  in  a  confined  location,  the  growth  may  be 
rapid,  but  the  texture  light  and  spongy,  and  the  wood  of  poor 
quality,  although  of  ample  volume.  Even  the  teak,  one  of  the 


Structure  of  Wood. 


71 


^£>    •/•:     .'•.vlfcX?*'. 


58.  Teak  Wood. 


strongest  of  woods,  and  present- 
ing in  its  best  conditions  the 
texture  shown  in  the  annexed 
engraving,  becomes  brittle  and 
soft,  wThen  rapidly  grown,  and 
•does  not  harden  into  heavy, 
strong,  and  durable  wood,  until 
it  has  ripened  with  age. 

253.  Trees  grown  as  reserves, 

in  a  coppice,  and  exposed  alter-57-  Wood  of  RaPid  Growth,  but  Spongy  Text- 
nately  to  the  open  air  and  to 
the  shade  of  other  trees  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  their  growth, 
have  a  harder  wood  than  those 
grown  in  masses,  but  it  is  apt 
to  be  knotty  from  lateral 
branches — and  such  trees  being 
more  exposed  to  the  winds  and 
to  other  accidents,  do  not  have 
so  straight  and  regular  a  body,  nor  do  they  grow  as  high  as  when 
many  are  grown  together.  Such  wood  does  not  readily  split  into 
staves.  A  difference  in  the  width  of  wood  layers  may  be  caused  by 
the  greater  or  less  shade  in  which  it  has  grown,  so  that  the  character 
of  the  seasons  can  never  be  learned  definitely  in  the  cross  section  of 
a  tree,  unless  it  has  grown  in  an  isolated  position.  Still,  from  the 
comparison  of  a  great  number  of  facts  it  might  perhaps  be  possible 
to  determine  with  some  certainty  the  general  character  of  the  cli- 
mate by  this  method. 

254.  The  wood  of  conifers,  as  a  ride,  is  heavier,  more  elastic,  and 
more  durable,  according  as  its  growth  has  been  slower,  and  the  an- 
nual rings  are  narrower.     We  see  this  shown  in  the  timber  from  the 
Baltic,  and  in  the  Siberian  larch.    These  qualities  are  found  greatest 
in  the  timber  grown  in  cold  climates,  and  differences  may  sometimes 
be  detected  in  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  same  tree.     As  a 
general  rule,  trees  growing  in  swampy  land  have  a  more  open  and 
spongy  texture  than  the  same  species  grown  on  dryer  land. 

255.  Cellulose,  which  constitutes  the  principal  body  of  wood-fiber, 
is  alike  in  all  kinds  of  wood,  when  separated  from  other  substances, 


Structure  of  Wood. 


and  consists  cf  about  44.4  per  cent  of  carbon,  6.2  per  cent  of  hy- 
drogen, and  49.3  per  cent  of  oxygen. 

256.  However  plants  may  differ  in  form  and  structure,  they  are 
all  the  result  of  cell-growth.     These  celb  form  in  the  interior  of 

(\  pre-existing  cells  by  subdivision,  and,  by  pressing 
upon  one  another,  they  elongate  into  fibrous  forms,' 
as  already  shown  on  page  68.  When  macerated, 
these  fibers  may  be  separated,  and  sometimes  they 
afford  differences  that  enable  us  to  determine  the 
class  or  group  to  which  the  woods  belong.  In  the1 
coniferse,  there  are  thin  places  along  the  sides  of 
the  cells,  which  can  be  readily  seen  under  the  mi- 

59.  structure  of  Co-  croscope,  and  can  be  found  even  in  the  fibers  of 
nifurous  Woods.    paper  ma(ie  from  wood. 

257.  In  some  woods,  as,  for  example,  the  oak,  ash,  walnut,  etc., 
the  cells  grow  to  a  larger  size,  so  as  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
These  form  ducts,  which  are  not  continuous  for  great  length,  but 
are  intermingled  in  various  forms,  presenting  in  cross-sections  the 
appearance  of  pores.     They  usually  contr/::i  air,  and  at  certain  sea- 
sons sap.     In  ascending  among  these  fibers,  the  sap  passes  up  be- 
tween and  among  the  fibers,  and  through  their  partitions.     In  some 

f         f  of  the  larger  ducts,  they  have  a  spiral  coil 

of  fiber,  or  the  sides  are  made  up  of  rings, 
and  they  are  sometimes  marked  with  dots. 

258.  In  resinous  woods,  the  turpentine  is 
contained  in  larger  cavities,  surrounded  by 
smaller  cells.    The  abundance  of  this  product 
depends  in  a  great  degree  upon   the  vigor 
of  growth,  and  exposure  to  the  air  and  light. 

259.  The  annexed  cut  shows  a  section  of  the 
linden  six  years  old,  enlarged  about  five  di- 
ameters, in  which  the  concentric  layers  are 
distinguished    by   a   somewhat   denser   and 
slightly  colored  line  along  their  outer  mar- 
gin, and  their  relation  to  the  bark  is  shown. 
In  this  figure,  a  is  the  medullary  sheath,  b 
the  liber  or  inner  bark,  d  the  cellular  tissues 
of  the  bark,  e  the  pith,  and  /  the  epidermis 

60.  Section  of  a  Linden  Tree  _ 

of  Six  Years'  Growth.        or  OUter 


Structure  of  Bark.  78 

260.  In  the  bark  itself,  an  annular  layer  of  growth  is  also  formed 
next  to  the  wood,  and  in  some  cases  we  may  couut  the  distinct  lay- 
ers of  growth  of  recent  years ;  but  in  other  cases  they  become  a 
homogeneous  mass,  as  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  aud  the  outer  layers 
are  gradually  cast  off.  In  some  trees,  like  the  birch  and  the  cherry, 
the  outer  layers  consist  of  strong  fibers,  running  horizontally  around 
the  trunk  and  branches.  These  may  exfoliate  in  loose  shreds.  This 
tendency  to  exfoliation  is  shown  in  the  plane  tree,  where  the  outer 
bark  falls  off  in  hard  masses,  leaving  a  fresh  surface,  at  first  white, 
but  becoming  greenish,  and  in  the  Scotch  pine  (Pi'nus  sylvestris) ,  in 
which  the  outer  bark  peels  off  in  thin  flakes  from  the  upper  part  of 


61.  Longitudinal  Section  of  the  Bark 
of  the  Linden:  showing  the  minute 
interlocking  fibers  of  the  bast-bun- 
dles, crossing  the  longitudinal 
fibers. (1) 


62.  Transverse  Section  of  the  Bark  of  the 
Linden:  showing  the  outer  bark,  h; 
the  green  cellular  layer,  </;  the  bast- 
layer,  ft;  and  the  edge  of  contact  with 
the  wood,0r;  with  the  medullary  rays 
of  the  bark,  m,  m,  m.  m,  TO,  extend- 
ing into  the  green  cellular  layer.  (1) 


the  trunk,  and  from  the  branches,  leaving  a  smooth  and  fresh  green 
surface. 

2G1.   When  the  bark  and  wood  of  a  tree  are  cut  or  wounded  by 
accident,  as  by  the  marking-hammer  of  the  forester,  or  the  ax  of  a 

1  From  Rossmassler. 


74 


Structure  and  Growth  of..  Wood. 


surveyor,  the  growth  from  the  side  will  gradually  close  over  the  in- 
jury, and  fill  iu  the  inequalities,  so  that,  when  afterwards  split  off, 
it  will  often  show  in  relief  any  depressions  or  cuts  on  the  original 
i-  trunk.     Many  Forest   Academies 

in  Europe  have  in  their  museums 
specimens  of  timber-marks  thus 
cut  or  stamped  into  wrood,  with  the 
cast  taken  by  nature  from  the 
mold.  The  land-marks  of  surveyors 
have  thus  been  found  more  than  a 
hundred  years  afterwards.  Some 
scar,  or,  in  coniferous  trees,  per- 
haps a  gum-spot,  would  be  noticed 
upon  the  outside,  and  by  cutting 
down  through  as  many  rings  of 
growth  as  there  had  been  years 
since  the  former  survey,  the  marks 
of  the  ax  would  be  found. 


Growth  of  the  Trunk  and  Branches. 

262.  The  successive    layers  of 
wood  in  the  trunk  and  branches 
extend  over  their  whole  surface, 
more  or  less  uniformly,  as  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  sketch.     The 
inequalities  in  thickness,  often  seen, 
are  caused  by  differences  of  nutri- 
tion   from    particular    roots    and 
branches.     They  will  fill   up  the 
slight  irregularities  of  early  years, 
so  that  a  sapling  may  be  somewhat 
crooked,  and  yet  form  a  tree  that 
is  perfectly  straight  and  symmetri- 
es. Section  showing  the  Growth  of  the  cal- 

263.  The  actual  size  and  form  of 

the  tree,  at  every  stage  of  its  former  life  (excepting  as  modified  by 
the  loss  of  branches),  is  preserved  within,  and  might  be  shown  by 


1  From  Ross m ass ler's  work — "  Dcr  WaldS 


Structure  and  Growth  of  Wood. 


75 


removing  the  layers  of  growth  that  have  formed  since  any  given 
period.  ' 

2(54.  A  leaning  tree  has  the  center  of  growth  on  the  upper  side, 
and  the  same  is  generally  observed  in  branches  near  the  place  where 


64.  Excentric  Forms  of  Growth. 

they  come  out  of  the  tree.     This  excentric  growth  is  very  common 
in  tropical  woods,  and  in  some  species  there  are  sec- 
ondary centers  of  growth  within  the  principal  ones. 

265.  In  some  of  the  conifers,  especially  in  the  firs 
and  spruces,  there  is  a  remarkable  symmetry  in  the 
branches,  several  (often  five)  springing  from  a  single 
point,  and  dividing  the  angular  space  equally  between 
them.     The  vertical  distance  between  these  branches 
generally  represents  a  year's  growth  in  length,  and  a 
cross-section  above  a  set  of  branches  has,  of  course, 
one  less  number  of  rings  than  would  be  found  below 
them. 

266.  The  rate  of   growth    in   wood   differs 
greatly,  according  to  the  soil,  elevation,  aspect,  cli-j 
mate,  humidity,  temperature,  prevailing  winds,  and 
other  causes.     It  has  been  estimated  that,  on  a  gen- 
eral average,  a  forest  will,  if  not  specially  cared  for, 
grow  about  a  cord  of  wood  on  an  acre  per  year.     It 
may  often  be  much  less  than  this,  or  much  more,  and 
may  be  largely  increased  by  clearing  out  the  under- 
growth, and  thinning  out  the  trees  that  crowd  too 
closely.     It  may  be  stimulated  by  fertilizers,  applied 

as  a  top  dressing,  and  may  be  retarded  by  taking    spruce, 
away  the  litter  that  accumulates  from  the  fall  of  leaves. 


76  Roots:  their  Structure  and  Uses. 

Form,  Functions)  and  Manner  of  Growth  of  the  Roots. 

267.  Eoots  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:    Tap-roots,  which 
descend  deeply  into  the  soil,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the 
sub-soil ;  or  Tracing-roots,  that  extend  laterally  and  nearer  the  sur- 
face.    The  latter  will  sometimes  run  to  a  great  distance. 

268.  It  is  sometimes  found  that  a  mixture  of  different  species  of 
timber  trees  makes  a  better  growth  upon  the  whole,  in  a  woodland, 
than  one  kind  alone.     In  these  cases  one  has  often  a  tap-root,  and 
the  other  a  tracing-root,  thus  drawing  their  support  from  different 
depths  of  the  soil.     The  oak  and  the  beech  are  examples  of  this 
kind,  and  we  shall  have  further  occasion  to  speak  of  this  subject. 

269.  The  roots  of  our  common  trees  are  made  up  of  concentric 
layers,  and  grow' by  external  addition  under  the  bark,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  trunk  and  branches.     Their  bark  is  generally  thin, 
and  they  often  grow  one  into  another,  and  in  a  much  more  irregular 
form  than  the  branches.     There  is  often  no  apparent  difference  in 
texture,  corresponding  to  sap  and  heart  wood.     The  stumps  and 
roots  of  trees  are  in  European  countries  often  used  for  fuel,  and  in 
making  charcoal,  and  in  the  resinous  kinds  they,  in  some  instances, 
abound  in  turpentine,  and  are  used  in  making  tar  and  pitch. 

270.  The  fiber  of  root-wood  is  sometimes  very  strong  and  flexible, 
as  in  the  young  spruce.     The  stump  and  roots  in  some  trees  have  a 
twisted  and  contorted  grain  that  gives  them  great  value  for  orna- 
mental cabinet-work.     The  "  Thuja,"  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  (Cal- 
litris  quadrivalvis) ,  one  of  the  most  highly  prized  of  fine  woods,  is  an 
example.     The  black  walnut  often  furnishes  in  its  stump  and  large 
roots,  a  beautiful  grain  in  the  wood. 

271.  The  roots  of  trees  will  insinuate  themselves  into  the  thinnest 
crevices  where  they  can  find  moisture  and  soil,  and  by  their  expan- 
sion hasten  disintegration,  and  sometimes  raise  and  displace  heavy 
masses  of  rock.     For  this  reason,  trees  should  not  be  planted  near 
the  lines  of  covered  aqueducts,  or  other  important  works  of  masonry 
that  might  be  injured  by  displacement. 

272.  The  roots  of  poplars  and  willows  will  fill  water-pipes,  and 
even  wells,  if  they  can  reach  them.     This  tendency  to  penetrate 
damp  soil,  renders  these  kinds,  including  the  cotton  woods,  very  use- 
ful in  consolidating  the  banks  of  ditches,  especially  those  used  for 
irrigation   in   arid   regions.     They  doubtless   evaporate  a  part  of 


Roots:  their  Structure  and  Growth.  77 

the  water  in  such  cases  through  their  leaves,  but  they  give  it 
out  to  the  air  where  it  most  needs  it,  if  there  be  crops  under  cul- 
tivation, and  besides  strengthening  the  banks,  they  shade  the  sur- 
face from  the  sun  and  winds.  The  roots  of  willows  afford  the  best 
prevention  against  erosion  of  banks,  in  light  soils,  and  these  and 
other  trees  and  plants  most  effectually  hold  in  place  embankments, 
and  sands  liable  to  drift  by  the  winds. 

273.  The  smaller  roots  of  trees  are  covered,  especially  near  their 
extremities,  by  radicles  or  fibers,  through  which  the  water  in  the  soil, 
and  various  mineral  elements  in  solution,  are  taken  up  and  conveyed 
in  the  form  of  sap  to  the  leaves,  by  passing  up  among  the  pores  of 
the  wood.     The,  vigor  of  growth  in  a  tree  is  generally  proportioned 
to  the  abundance  of  its  radicles,  and  success  in  planting  depends 
upon  their  preservation  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible  without 
drying. 

274.  Roots  will  often  form  buds  and  produce  leaves,  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  and  in  many  species  buds  will  form  roots  when 
buried  as  layers  while  still  attached  to  the  tree.     In  the  mistletoe 
and  other  parasites,  the  roots  will  penetrate  the  wood  of  living  trees 
upon  which  their  viscid  seeds  get  attached,  thus  weakening  the  vi- 
tality of  the  trees  to  which  they  fasten,  by  absorbing  their  juices. 

275.  In  some  cases  the  roots,  and  especially  their  bark,  possess 
medicinal  properties,  often  due  to  an  essential  oil,  as  in  the  sassa- 
fras.    These  qualities  are  generally  more  abundant  in  trees  grown 
in  hot  climates,  and  become  less  in  the  same  species  where  they  will 
bear  transplanting  to  cooler  latitudes. 

276.  In  rare  cases,  the  roots  of  different  trees  of  the  same  species 
will  grow  together  under  ground,  so  that  when  one  is  cut  down  its 
stump  will  continue  to  live,  and  even  to  increase  slightly  in  size, 
from  the  nourishment  it  derives  from  the  other  tree.    But  where  from 
close  proximity  trees  of  different  species  have  their  roots  so  closely 
interlocked  that  are  apparently  united  as  one,  it  will  be  found  upon 
a  cross-section  that  there  is  a  line  of  bark  or  distinct  separation  be- 
tween them. 

277.  In  some  cases,  a  fungus  growth  will  attach  to  the  root,  and 
spreading  from  one  tree  to  another,  cause  their  destruction,  the  in- 
fection extending  from  a  center  in  a  circular  form.     This  is  most  ef- 
fectually arrested  by  digging  trenches  deeper  than  the  roots  reach, 


78  The  Sap  and  its  Functions. 

and  by  digging  up  and  burning  the  infected  portions.  A  dying  off 
of  the  chestnut  trees  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  fungous  growths  upon  the  roots.  A  similar  cause  of  decay 
is  noticed  in  some  species  of  the  pine. 

278.  The  truffle,  a  fungus  that  forms  over  the  roots  of  the  oak, 
in  some  countries,  is  a  highly  esteemed  article  of  food,  and  becomes 
at  times  a  product  of  much  profit  in  the  forests  where  it  is  produced. 
This  fungus  is  formed  chiefly  in  calcareous  soils,  and  appears  to  re- 
quire certain  conditions  of  climate.     In  the  neighborhood  of  Avig- 
non, in  France,  the  revenue  from  this  source  alone,  in  a  single  com- 
mune, sometimes  exceeds  $5,000  a  year. 

On  the  Pressure  of  Sap,  and  its  Changes. 

279.  The  moisture  of  the  soil  is  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  pass- 
ing through  these  to  the  trunk,  branches,  and  leaves,  descends  again, 
more  or  less  changed,  to  supply  nutriment  to  every  part.     The  ac- 
tion of  liquids  in  passing  through  membranes  and  cellular  tissues, 
amounting  sometimes  to  a  pressure  of  several  atmosphere,  is  called 
endosmose,  and  is  shown  in  a  striking  manner,  when  measured  by 
gauges. 

280.  About  1720,  the  Rev.  Stephen  Hales,  an  English  observer, 
began  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  pressure  of  sap,  and  the  ab- 
sorption of  water  by  plants,  carefully  noting  the  changes  observed, 
and  publishing  the  results.     These  experiments  form  the  basis  of 
much  that  has  since  been  determined  in  this  line  of  research. 

281.  In  the  spring  of  1873,  a  series  of  experiments  was  begun  at 
the  Amherst  Agricultural  College,  Mass.,  by  its  president  (Mr.  W. 
S.  Clark)  and  associates,  which  led  to  very  interesting  results.     Sev- 
eral mercurial  gauges  were  provided,  and  attached  to  trees  that  had 
been  tapped,  by  screwing  in  a  hollow  plug  of  metal,  to  which  the 
gauge  was  connected.     The  changes  in  pressure  were  read  upon  a 
scale.     It  was  found  that  at  some  hours  the  pressure  was  inwards, 
and  at  others  outwards.     In   the   latter  case  only  would  the  sap 
flow  from  the  spouts  in  the  usual  way.     These  gauges,  when  at- 
tached to  the  birch,  showed  a  much  greater  range  of  pressure  than 
on  the  maple,  and  this  even  when  connected  with  an  isolated  root 
in  the  ground. 

282.  The  extreme  range  in  the  sugar  maple  was  from  -(-  46  to 


Autumnal  Colors:  General  Views.  79 

—  23  inches  of  mercury,  a  difference  of  69  inches.1  In  the  poplar- 
leaved  white  birch,  it  was  from  -|-  35  to  —  17,  in  the  body  of  the 
tree,  and  from  -f  33.6  to  —  20,2  in  the  root.  In  the  yellow  birch 
(Betula  ejccelsa) ,  it  ranged  from  -(-65.5  to  —  18.5  ;  in  the  canoe-birch, 
from  -j-  59  to  —  7  ;  and  in  the  grape-vine,  from  -f-  74  to  12.7  inches. 
Where  one  gauge  was  placed  near  the  root  of  a  tree,  and  another 
near  the  top,  they  indicated  a  difference  due  to  the  hydrostatic 
pressure  of  a  column  of  water  equal  in  length  to  the  distance  be- 
tween the  two  levels.  Trials  were  made  upon  the  butternut,  iron- 
wood,  apple  tree,  etc.,  with  corresponding  results,  but  less  in  degree. 
These  experiments  were  made  before  the  leaves  had  opened,  and 
the  force  of  suction  could  not  therefore  be  ascribed  to  evaporation 
from  their  surfaces. 

Autumnal  Colors. 

283.  The  coloring  of  autumnal  leaves  appears  to  be  due  to  the 
formation  of  organic  acids   from   the  absorption  of  oxygen,  and 
caused  by  a  ripening  process,  similar  to  that  which  colors  ripening 
fruits.     It  is  not  the  effect  of  frost,  as  many  people  believe,  but 
may  be  hastened  by  the  cool  nights  alternating  with  warm  days, 
that  often  occur  in  autumn.     The  autumnal  coloring  of  European 
forests  is  sometimes  bright,  but  never  as  brilliant  as  in  our  Northern 
States  and  in  Canada.     Its  prevailing  colors  are  yellow,  shading  off 
into  tints  of  pale  orange  and  reddish  brown,  while  in  our  northern 
forests  it  is  often  the  brightest  scarlet  and  orange,  a  rich  golden  yel- 
low, or  an  intense  purple,  but  all  passing  gradually  into  a  nearly 
uniform  shade  of  brown. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

GENERAL   VIEWS   IN   REGARD   TO   FORESTRY. 

Of  the  Investment  of  Labor  and  Capital  in  Forest-tree  Planting — Ques- 
tion* of  Profit. 

284.  As  a  general  rule,  the  most  profitable  lands  forplanting,  at  pres- 
ent prices,  are  not  those  that  would  yield  the  best  farm  crops,  although 
the  best  lands  will  always  produce  the  best  growth  of  forest  trees. 
Upon  such  lauds,  forest  trees  would  be  sure  to  thrive,  but  the  profits 

1In  these  statements,  the  sign  (-(-)  is  used  to  denote  the  outward,  and  ( — ) 
the  inward  pressure. 


80  The  Profits  of  Timber- Culture. 

might  be  relatively  less.  In  a  region  of  hills  and  valleys,  there  are 
always  some  portions  of  the  land  that  yield  a  much  smaller  return 
under  equal  care  than  others.  They  may  be  valleys  and  ravines, 
or  steep  declivities,  or  rocky  and  broken  surfaces,  and  upon  these  a 
grove  of  trees  may  often  prove  the  best  investment. 

285.  In  other  cases,  the  soil  may  have  been  reduced  to  barren- 
ness by  improvident  tillage,  and  then  there  is  no  better  way  to  re- 
store its  fertility  than  by  the  growth  of  trees,  and  the  accumulation 
of  a  new  supply  of  vegetable  soil  from  the  decay  of  the  leaves.     In 
some  sections  of  the  country,  where  old  fields  have  been  abandoned 
for  cultivation,  a  crop  of  pines,  oaks,  or  some  other  kinds  of  trees, 
will  come  in  and  occupy  the  land,  forming,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  quite  a  dense  growth,  but  generally  not  of  the  most  profita- 
ble kinds.     The  latter  may  gradually  become  introduced.     It  has 
been  noticed  that  where  we  find  a  woodland  principally  composed  of 
but  one  kind  of  timber,  it  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and 
that  a  great  diversity  of  species  indicates  that  the  woodland  has 
been  growing  for  a  long  period. 

286.  In  the  midst  of  a  well-settled  country,  with  no  prospect  of 
increase  in-  value  from  external  causes,  the  probable  revenues  of 
land  under  common  forms  of  farm  cultivation  are  less  than  in  many 
other  kinds  of  property.    The  investment  becomes  especially  desira- 
ble from  the  security  that  it  affords,  and  a  reasonable  prospect  that 
this  value  may  be  increased  by  improvements  and  the  general  ad- 
vance in  values  as  the  country  becomes  older.     There  are   many 
pleasing  associations  connected  with  the  solid  and  enduring  posses- 
sion of  a  landed  estate,  and  the  comfortable  independence  that  it 
secures.     The  value  of  farming  laud  varies  with  the  general  wealth 
and  capital  of  a  country,  and  increases  or  declines,  not  only  as  af- 
fected by  the  prosperity  of  places  near  it,  but  also  by  those  which 
may  be  more  distant,  but  still  large  consumers  of  its  products. 

287.  Except  in  the  suburbs  of  cities  and  villages,  there  is  little 
that  is  speculative  in  the  possession  of  land,  after  the  lines  of  trans- 
portation, and  business  points  of  a  country  have  been  fully  estab- 
lished,    Should  a  time  come  when  forests  are  managed  by  great 
corporations,  there  is  not   the  least  probability  that   their  capital 
stock  would  be  liable  to  great  and  sudden  changes,  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  dealing.  The  returns  would  be  slow  in  coining,  but  sure 


The  Gaining  Hates  of  Tree- Growth. 


81 


under  careful  management,  and  very  considerable  at  the  end  of  the 
appointed  periods. 

288.  To  illustrate  the  rates  of  this  increase,  we  will  suppose  that 
the  annual  rings  of  growth  in  a  tree  are  of  equal 

width.     As   a  matter  of  fact,  they  are   much 
wider  in  some  years  than  in  others,  but,  for  il- 
lustration, we  will  consider  them,  as  uniform  in 
thickness.     Counting  from  the  center  outward, 
we  would  have  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc., 
showing   the   years   of  growth.     The  areas   of 
these  circles  (each  including  those  within  it)  areee.  concentric  Rings  of 
as  the  squares  of  these  numbers,  viz.,  1,  4,  9, 
16,  25,  etc.     By  subtracting  each  of  these  from  the  preceding,  we 
have  the  series,  3,  5,  7,  9,  etc.,  that  represents  the  gain  of  each  year 
upon  tlie  year  preceding. 

289.  These  relative  rates  may  be  shown  by  a  simple  diagram,  in 
which  the  gain  in  diameter  is  represented  by  the 

lower  diagonal,  and  the  gain  in  area  by  the  upper 
one.  The  numbers  along  the  bottom  in  this  figure 
represent  the  years,  and  those  on  the  margin  units 
of  quantity.  The  rates  thus  shown  are  actually 
maintained  for  many  years,  while  young,  but  be- 
come less  as  the  trees  approach  maturity.  They 
show  the  waste  from  cutting  thrifty  young  timber 
at  the  period  of  most  profitable  growth,  and 
should  lead  us  to  spare  it,  when  possible,  till  it  has  G7- Diametfrf  ami  Sf 

gained  its  full  Value.  Sectional  Areas. 

290.  But  these  gaining  rates  are  only  those  of  sectional  area;  the 
trees  are  at  the  same  time  gaining  in  height,  and  the  timber  is  gain- 
ing in  quality  and  value  per  cubic  foot,  as  it  grows  older,  for  it  can 
then  be  applied  to  more  important  uses,  when  it  has  grown  to  large 
size,  besides  being  of  intrinsically  greater  value,  when  fully  mature. 

291.  The  planting  of  forests,  and  their  management  afterwards, 
till  grown  to  full  maturity,  can  not  be  followed  from  fixed  rules  as 
to  time  and  manner,  but  the  business  must  be  conducted  with  an 
intelligent  understanding  of  the  conditions  that  exist,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances that  may  influence  their  growth.     Under  equal  circum- 
stances, as  in  all  other  forms  of  business,  the  man  who  pays  the 
closest  attention  to  his  affairs,  and  neglects  nothing,  will,  at  the  end 


:  +  :: 

-  -  VI- 

1:1 

--T-7' 

±j± 

[*J5 

•4'   -  - 

_  i 

82  Advantages  from  Planting :  Its  Limit  and  Proportion. 

of  a  given  period,  have  the  most  to  show  for  his  labor.  The  care 
of  woodlands  is  not  generally  as  laborious  as  that  of  cultivated 
fields,  and,  if  they  are  both  united  upon  a  farm,  the  alternation  of 
care  from  one  to  the  other,  as  the  seasons  and  the  occasion  may  re- 
quire, serves  to  break  the  monotony  of  life,  and  contribute  to  its 
enjoyment. 

292.  There  are  incidental  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  planting 
of  trees  for  embellishment  and  shade,  that  can  not  be  separately  esti- 
mated.    That  they  increase  the  general  value  of  an  estate,  can  not 
be  doubted,  and  perhaps  this  might  best  be  understood  by  asking, 
how  much  less  would  the  property  be  worth  ivithovt  them.     As  prices  of 
timber  may  hereafter  advance,  the  income  from  stated  cuttings  will 
doubtless  form  a  comfortable  source  of  revenue,  and  there  is  a  point 
beyond  which  this  may  be  greater  than  from  any  other  form  of  cul- 
tivation. 

293.  In  the  planting  of  avenues  and  parks,  in  or  near  towns  and 
cities,  questions  of  public  utility,  of  personal  comfort,  and  of  health 
become  paramount  to  all  others,  and  are  altogether  above  pecuniary 
appraisal.     There  are  other  incidental  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
the  planting  of  village  streets  and  parks  in  the  neighborhood  of  cities 
that  will  be  elsewhere  more  fully  noticed. 

On  the  Due  Proportion  of  Woodlands  to  Cultivated  Fields. 

294.  In  considering  only  the  wants  of  a  country,  we  must  admit 
that  wood  is  absolutely  indispensable  for  our  use — that  it  can  only 
be  obtained  by  natural  or  artificial  growth,  and  that  therefore  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  land  must  be  devoted  to  its  production.     Where 
from  commercial  facilities,  or  colonial  possessions,  this  growth  may 
be  obtained  by  importation,  and  the  land  required  for  its  production 
may  be  distant,  still  the  proportion  must  be  maintained,  or  a  great 
future  interest  must  be  sacrificed  to  meet  a  present  want.     The 
actual  and  relative  amount  of  forests  in  Europe  will  enable  us  to 
form  some  idea  as  to  how  this  question  stands  at  the  present  time  in 
these  countries. 


The  Due  Proportion  of  Woodlands  t 


•^.        f  J ,  I  1^ 

295.  Forest  Area  of  various  Countries  of  Europe,  from  late   Official 

Statistics. 


COUNTRIES. 

Acres 
of 

Forests. 

Per  c't 
of  total 
Area. 

COUNTRIES. 

Acres 
of 
Fore&ts. 

Per  c't 
of  total 
Area. 

Russia  

476,710.000 
27,170,000 
43,395,430 
1X.920.S09 
45,309,411 
34,969,791 
20,503,280 
4,940,000 
14,228,978 

j  40.0 

j  34  1 

29  4 

26  1 

j  22.2 
22.0 

Switzerland  
France  
Greece    
-'pain  
Belgium 

1,788.786 
22,687,71*5 
1,7-21.029 
7,833.647 
501,402 
569,160 
1,165.420 
3,106,824' 
464,360 

18  0 
17  3 
14  3 
7  3 
7  0 
7  0 
51 
4  1 
3.4 

29.5 

Finland  
Sweden  
Norway  

Germany  
Turkey  
Roumania  
Italy       .          

Holland  
Portugal  
Great'  Britain  
Denmark  '.  

Total  .  . 

725.985.743 

296.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  table,  that  the  general  average 
throughout  Europe  is  between  a  fourth  and  a  third  ;  that  the  least 
proportion  is  in  those  countries  where  the  facilities  for  foreign  im- 
portation are  greatest,  or  where  the  demand  is  least,  and  that  the 
countries  from  whence  for  a  century  vast  supplies  have  been  drawn, 
are  by  no  means  so  well  wooded  as  to  promise  indefinite  continu- 
ance or  inexhaustible  supply.     The  relative  abundance  in  Russia  is 
found  only  in  the  northern  part,  and  nowhere  can  a  contrast  be- 
tween plenty  and   want   be   more  strongly  shown.      Moreover,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  in  case  of  need,  the  government  might 
easily  interrupt  the  exportation,  if  it  became  necessary  to  protect 
its  own  interest,  or  to  make  other  countries  feel  their  dependence 
upon  it  for  supplies. 

297.  It  is  obvious  that  foreign  demands  must  greatly  influence 
the  prices  of  a  commodity  in  countries  from  whence  it  is  supplied, 
without  reference  to  causes  that  might  operate  within  them ;  and 
since  our  country  has  furnished  for  a  long  period  a  large  and  con- 
stantly increasing  amount  of  timber  and  lumber  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, these  questions  become  with  us  matters  of  direct  practical  in- 
terest.   It  is  proper,  therefore,  that  we  should  take  a  general  glance 
at  the  distribution  and  extent  of  the  native  timber  resources  of  the 

*This  appears  to  be  an  over-statement.  From  statistics  published  in  1880,  it  is  shown 
that  there  were  then  1,435,434  acres  of  woodland  in  England,  162,135  in  Ireland,  and 
811.703  in  Scotland.  The  percentages  of  total  area  were 4. 4.— 3.4— and  1.6  respect- 
ively. 


84        Resemblances  and  Contrasts  in  Timber- Growth. 

United  States ;  but  before  doing  this,  we  will  notice  some  points  of 
resemblance  and  contrast,  due  to  great  geographical  and  climatic 
causes,  which  we  must  recognize  in  all  attempts  at  the  naturalization 
of  species,  and  which  may  afford  a  useful  guide  in  their  cultivation. 

Resemblances  and  Contrasts  in   the  native  Timber-growth   of  different 
Regions  of  the  United  States. 

298.  There  has  been  noticed  a  wride  difference  between  the  forests 
of  the  eastern  and  the  western  coasts  of  North  America,  and  a 
strong  resemblance  between  the  woodlands  cf  the  Atlantic  States 
and  Canada  and  the  eastern  coast  cf  Asia  and  the  islands  of  Japan. 
These  resemblances  apply  to  identical  or  representative  species  of  the 
genera  that  include  the  magnolias,  lindens,  sumacs,  buckeyes,  box- 
elder,  yellow-wood,  honey-locust,  pear,  shadbush,  dog-w7oods,  rhodo- 
dendrons, holly,  persimmon,  catalpa,  sassafras,  osage-orange,  pla- 
nera,  walnut,  butternut,  hazelnut,  birch,  alder,  yellow  and  white 
pine,  hemlock,  arbor-vitse,  bald  cypress,  and  yews. 

299.  None  of  these,  excepting  some  representatives  of  the  sumac, 
box-elder,   pear,  shadbush,  and  dog-wood,   appear  on   the  Pacific 
coast.     The  Himalaya   region,  Northern  China,  and   Mantchuria 
contain  many  native  species  that  may  be  cultivated  successfully  in 
ornamental  plantations  in  our  Atlantic  States,  and  are  already  ob- 
tainable from  our  great  nurseries.     It  is  already  ascertained  that 
they  have  better  prospects  "of  success  than  most  of  the  species  that 
thrive  so  remarkably   in  their  native  localities    upon   the  Pacific 
coast,  but  under  a  climate  and  in  conditions  that  we  can  not  provide 
for  them  in  the  Atlantic  States.     They  are  accustomed  to  heavy 
winter  rains  and  long  dry  summers,  and  must  have  them. 

300.  The  same  difficulty  occurs  when  we  attempt  to  cultivate  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  many  of  the  species  that  thrive  in  the  Atlantic 
States.     The  hemlock,  spruce,  Norway  spruce,  and  Austrian  pine, 
among  the  conifers,  and  the  sugar  maple  and  the  hickory  among 
deciduous  kinds,  grow  but  slowly  there.     The  pecan  and  the  beech 
do  better,  but  the  locust  tree  is  not  at  all  reliable.     Reasoning  from 
this  analogy,  we  would  expect  trees  from  the  west  cf  Europe  to 
succeed  in  cases  where  they  fail  in  the  Atlantic  States.     It  would 
well  be  worth  trial  as  to  whether  the  maritime  pine,  for  example, 
that  grows  so  luxuriantly  in   the  rainy  region  of  Southwestern 


Native  Forest  Resources  of  the  United  States.          85 

France,  would  not  be  found  suited  to  similar  conditions  upon  our 
western  coast,  and  prove  a  profitable  tree  for  forest-culture, 

301.  In  determining  the  kinds  of  trees  best  adapted  to  a  given 
region,  it  is  well  to  observe  what  kinds  have  grown  up,  or  that  still 
remain  of  the  native  growth,  along  the  borders  of  streams,  or  in 
places  where  they  have  been  sheltered  and  protected. 

302.  It  may  generally  be  presumed  that  these  kinds  would  suc- 
ceed with  much  certainty,   if  planted  again,   although   from   ex- 
haustion of  the  soil  by  cultivation,  or  its  injury  from  fires,  it  may 
have  been  impoverished  to  an  extent  that  would  make  it  difficult  to 
plant.     Before  much  expense   was  risked,  experimental   planting 
might  be  tried  upon  a  small  scale,  and  in  this  it  should  be  the  duty 
of  the  government  to  assist,  where  the  conditions  are  quite  new  and 
the  probabilities  are  unknown. 

General  Glance  at  the  Native  Forest  Resources  of  the  United  States  and 

Canada. 

303.  It  is  estimated  by  Professor  Brewer,  of  Yale  College,  that 
there  may  be  eight  hundred  species  of  woody  plants  growing  na- 
tive in  the  United  States,  of  which  about  three  hundred  attain  a 
height  of  thirty  feet,  and  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  are  tolerably 
abundant  somewhere.   Excluding  semi-tropical  species  on  the  extreme 
southern  border,  and  some  others  that  arc  rare,  there  would  still  re- 
main about  one  hundred  and  twenty  species,  of  which  about  twenty 
grow  to  one  hundred  feet,  twelve  to  two  hundred,  and  five  or  six 
to  three  hundred  feet  or  over.     Of  these  one  hundred  and  twenty, 
about  fifty  are  conifers. 

304.  East  of  the  treeless  plains,   which  extend  from  north  to 
south  across  the  country,  in  a  belt  some  hundreds  of  miles  wide, 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  native  forests  were  largely  of  de- 
ciduous kinds,  and  in  great  variety  of  species.     West  of  this  belt 
they  are  almost  entirely  conifers.     One  species,  the  aspen  (Populus 
tremidoides) ,  extends  entirely  across  the  continent.     There  may  be  a 
few  others  that  are  found  in  rare  cases. 

The  New  England  States. 

305.  In  generalizing  by  regions,  Professor  Brewer  remarks,  that 
in  the  New  England  States,  once  entirely  wooded,  there  are  eighty 
to  eighty-five  native  species,  of  which  about  sixty  grow  more  than 


86          Native  Forest  Resources  of  the  United  States. 

fifty  feet  high.  The  greater  number  of  these  are  hard-woods,  and 
the  conifers  are  chiefly  of  the  pine,  cedar,  and  spruce  families. 
As  shade-trees,  the  elm  and  the  sugar  maple  there  perhaps  attain 
their  finest  development. 

The  Middle  States. 

306.  In  the  Middle  States,  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
five  species  occur,  of  which  sixty-five  to  sixty-seven  grow  fifty  feet 
or  more  in  height.     These  states  were  once  heavily  wooded — the 
conifers  in  greater  or  less  abundance  being  mingled  among  the  de- 
ciduous kinds.     Some  of  the  oaks,  the  chestnut,  beech,  and  some 
kinds  of  the  ash,  and  the  white-pine,  there  grow  to  great  perfection 
in  their  favorite  localities. 

Southern  States. 

307.  From  Virginia  to  Florida,  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
species  occur,  of  which  about  seventy-five  grow  to  fifty  feet  or  more, 
and  perhaps  a  dozen  to  one  hundred  feet.     The  coast  of  this  region 
produces  the  bald  cypress,  and  towards  the  south  the  live-oak,  the 
palmetto  and  other  kinds. 

308.  A  broad  belt  of  long-leaved  pine  (Pinus  australis)  extends 
further  inland,  in  irregular  form,  around  through  the  middle  of  the 
Gulf  States  to  beyond  the  Mississippi  river.     Still  further  inland, 
and  at  higher  level,  the  oaks  and  other  hard-woods  become  more 
common,  and  on  the  mountains  the  northern  conifers  are  found. 
The  pine  forests  of  this  region  generally  present  an  open  appearance, 
probably  from  their  being  overrun  by  frequent  fires. 

309.  The  coast  region  and  the  swamps  bear  a  tree-growth  that  is 
dense  and  tangled,  and  although  there  may  be  timber  of  large  size, 
it  is  difficult  of  access,  as  the  swamps  never  freeze  so  as  to  facilitate 
lumbering  as  in  the  Northern  States.     In  these  swamps  there  is  often 
a  deep  deposit  of  vegetable  soil,  and  in  some  places  buried  cedar  may 
be  found  still  in  excellent  preservation. 

310.  At  a  short  distance  west  of  Trinity  river,  in  Texas,  the  for- 
ests begin  to  disappear,  and  there  are  immense  regions  in  that  state, 
extending  from  the  Gulf  to  the  northern  and  western  borders,  that 
are  wholly  destitute  of  trees. 

The  Western  States. 

311.  West  of  the  Alleghenies,  we  find  a  country  originally  cov« 


Timber  of  the  Western  States. —  The  Rocky  Mountains.  87 

ered  with  heavy  timber,  excepting  in  "oak  openings"  and  "bar- 
rens," where  the  trees  had  been  destroyed  by  frequent  fires,  and  the 
"  prairies,"  where  from  this  or  other  causes  no  timber  was  found, 
except  along  the  borders  of  streams. 

312.  These  open  spaces  of  every  description,  when  drained  and 
protected,  are  found  to  produce  trees  readily  under  cultivation,  there 
being  scarcely  any  part  that  presents  an  inherent  difficulty  in  the 
soil,  and  none  in  the  climate. 

313.  According  to  the  writer  above  cited,  the  country  north-west 
of  the  Ohio  river,  contains  from  one  hundred  and  five  to  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  native  species,  of  which  sixty-eight  to  seventy  grew  to 
a  height  of  fifty  feet.     In  Southern  Ohio  and  Indiana,  oaks  and 
various  hard-woods  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  and  the  walnuts,  bass- 
wood,  and  tulip-tree  attain  their  finest  development. 

314.  The  white-pine  region  begins  in  North-western  Ohio,  and  ex- 
tends into  the  states  further  north  and  west.     In  the  interior  of  Michi- 
gan, around  Sagiuaw  Bay,  and  along  both  lakes,  there  were  vast 
bodies  of  white  pine,  but  much  of  this  has  been  worked  out,  and 
according  to  careful  estimates  the  supply  can  not  last  many  years. 

315.  In  the  upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan,  in  Northern  Wiscon- 
sin, and  in  Eastern  and  North-eastern  Minnesota,  there  were  also 
large  bodies  of  timber,  generally  a  mixture  of  conifers  and  hard- 
woods.    The  forests  south  of  Lake  Superior  were  originally  second 
only  to  those  of  the  Pacific  coast  for  their  density,  and  the  size  of 
their  growth. 

316.  In  Illinois  and  Southern  Wisconsin,  and  from  the  Mississippi 
river  westward,  the  prairies  begin  to  predominate,  and  the  native 
forests  are  limited  to  belts  along  the  rivers  and  streams.     In  some 
parts,  these  spread  out  into  broad  areas  many  miles  in  extent,  and 
in  others  they  are  mere  fringes,  that  gradually  disappeared  altogether 
further  west. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

317.  The  sides  and  valleys  of  these  mountains  were  in  favorable 
situations  covered  with  coniferous  forest  trees,  sometimes  occupying 
broad  areas,  and  elsewhere  of  more  limited  extent.     The  number  of 
species  in  this  region  is  not  over  twenty-eight  or  thirty,  of  which 
the  conifers  form  two-thirds  the  number  in  species,  and  by  far  the 
greatest  proportion  in  quantity.     The  box-elder  (Negundo  aceroides) 
and  the  quaking  aspen,  are  the  more  important  deciduous  trees. 


88          Native  Forest  Resources  of  the  United  States. 

318.  The  "  divides"  between  river  systems  are  generally  wooded, 
but  in  scattered  patches  and  irregular  masses,  that  give  a  park-like 
appearance  to  the  country,  but  do  not  afford  for  many  years  a  sup- 
ply, where  miuing  or  other  settlements  are  made  in  their  vicinity. 
The  waste  and  improvidence  with  which  this  timber  is  being  de- 
stroyed should  lead  to  prompt  and  adequate  measures  for  its  protec- 
tion.    In  some  places,  it  can  scarcely  be  made  to  grow  again,  when 
once  cut  off,  and  in  others  the  rate  of  growth  is  so  slow  that  five 
hundred  years  would  scarcely  replace  the  thoughtless  waste  of  an 
hour. 

319.  The  decaying  remains  of  coniferous  and  other  trees  are  not 
unfrequeutly  found  in  this  region  and  westward,  extending  farther 
out  towards  the  plains  than  any  of  the  kind  are  now  found  growing, 
or  at  least  young  and  in  thriving  condition.    This  has  been  thought 
to  indicate  that  at  no  distant  period  in  the  past,  these  trees  flourished 
over  a  larger  area  than  at  present,  and  in  places  where,  from  changed 
conditions  of  the  climate,  they  could  now  scarcely  be  made  to  grow 
by  the  most  careful  cultivation. 

320.  This  recession  will,  in  all  probability,  be  hastened  by  the 
improvident  waste  that  is  now  going  on,  and  changes  are  already 
perceptible,  although  the  time  since  settlements  began  is  but  brief. 
The  nutritious  bunch-grasses  of  the  plains  extend  up  into  the  bor- 
ders of  the  timber  belt,  and  in  open  valleys  are  found  to  nearly 
11,000  feet  above  tide. 

TJie  Pacific  Coast. 

321.  The  forests  of  this  region  are  for  the  most  part  restricted  to 
the  sea-coast,  the  borders  of  rivers,  and  the  mountain  sides,  and  are 
distinguished  on  account  of  the  relatively  large  preponderance  of 
the  coniferous  as  compared  with  the  deciduous  kinds. 

322.  In  speaking  of  the  contrasts  between  this  region  and  the  At- 
lantic States,  Dr.  Asa  Gray  remarks : 

"California  has  no  magnolia  nor  tulip-trees,  nor  star-anise  tree;  no  so- 
called  pawpaw ;  no  barberry  of  the  common  single-leaved  sort;  ...  no 
prickly-ash  nor  sumac;  no  loblolly-bay  norstuartia;  no  basswood  nor  lin- 
den trees;  neither  locust,  honey-locust,  coffee-trees,  nor  yellow-wood;  nothing 
answering  to  hydrangea  or  witch-hazel,  to  gum-trees,  viburnum,  or  dier- 
villa;  no  huckle-berries,  and  hardly  any  blue-berries;  no  epigsea — charm  of 
our  earliest  spring — tempering  the  April  wind  with  a  delicious  wild  fra- 
grance; no  kalmia,  nor  clethra,  nor  holly,  nor  persimmon  ;  no  catalpa  tree; 


Timber  Resources  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.     89 

.  .  .  nothing  answering  to  sassafras,  nor  to  benzoin  tree,  nor  to  hickory; 
neither  mulberry  nor  elm  ;  no  beech,  true  chestnut,  hornbeam,  nor  iron  wood, 
nor  a  proper  birch  tree;  and  the  enumeration  might  be  continued  very  much 
further  by  naming  herbaceous  plants  and  others  familiar  to  botanists." 

323.  The  enormous  sizes  to  which  some  of  the  conifers  of  this 
region  grow,  has  been  the  wonder  of  all  travelers ;  but  these  im- 
mense growths  do  not  cover  large  areas,  and  nowhere  can  such 
strong  contrasts  between  abundance  and  scarcity  be  elsewhere  seen. 
The  heavy  forests  do  not  extend  much  beyond  the  coast  region,  the 
borders  of  rivers  or  the  mountain  sides  and  valleys,  and  these  usually 
present  remarkable  peculiarities  in  the  prevailing  growth. 

324.  The  consumption  aud  waste  that  have  been  going  on  since 
settlement  began,  have  already  made  serious  inroads  upon  these  ap- 
parently "  inexhaustible"  supplies,  and  probably  already  more  than 
half,  in  all  the  accessible  portions,  is  now  gone.     There  is  a  most 
urgent  need  of  conservative  measures,  and  the  time  is  not  distant 
when  the  inhabitants  of   that  region,  and  those  depending  upon 
these  supplies,  will  be  admonished  by  enhanced  prices  of  the  im- 
portance of  economy  and  the  value  of  a  growing  tree. 

325.  In  Canada,  there  are  found  sixty-five  native  species  of  trees, 
in  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  the  Maritime  Provinces ;  of  which  about 
a  dozen  range  as  far  north  as  James  Bay.     The  birches,  poplars, 
and  tamarac  are  found  in  the  more  northerly  region,  and  south  of 
these  the  pines  and  the  beech,  the  latter  chiefly  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior  to  Quebec.     West  of  Ni- 
agara river  is  a  zone  where  the  walnut,  butternut,  tulip-tree,  sassa- 
fras, and  chestnut  occur,  with  an  increasing  abundance  of  oaks. 
The  absence  of  trees  and  of  mosses  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  prairies 
of  Manitoba  and  westward.1    The  principal  pine  forests  of  Canada 
have  receded  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  great  rivers  flowing  into 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes,  and  from  the  investigations  that 
have  been  undertaken  by  the  government  in  recent  years,  it  appears 
evident  that  the  time  of  principal  exhaustion  is  not  many  years 
distant. 

Great  Britain. 

326.  Of  the  native  trees  of  Great  Britain,  there  are  only  about  a 
dozen  genera  and  thirty  species,  that  grow  to  thirty  feet  or  more 

1  Drummond's  Canadian  Timber  Trees,  p.  5. 


90  Alternations  in  Forest  Growth. 

in  height,  and  only  two  of  these  are  conifers.  By  importation  from 
other  countries,  the  number  now  under  cultivation  is  largely  in- 
creased, and  very  many  have  been  found  entirely  suited  to  the  soil 
and  climate.  Among  these,  the  larch  may  be  mentioned  as  the  one 
that  has  come  into  favor  more  than  any  other  species,  as  a  forest 
tree,  especially  in  Scotland.  The  conifers  of  our  Pacific  coast,  and 
especially  the  Douglas  fir,  appear  in  many  cases  to  thrive  well  when 
cultivated  as  timber  trees. 

Alternations  of  Forest  Growth. 

327.  It  has  been  often  observed  that  when  a  forest  has  been  de- 
stroyed, and  more  especially  if  it  has  been  killed  off  by  fire,  the 
growth  that  succeeds,  when  left  to  itself,  is  very  often  of  a  different 
kind.     If  the  former  growth  was   pine,  the  succeeding  one  may 
be  cherry  or  poplar,  and  in  some  regions  oak.     In  the  Southern 
States,  oak  and  hickory  may  be  followed  by  pine.     The  white  oak 
cut  off  at  Valley  Forge  by  the  American  army  in  1777-8  was  fol- 
lowed by  black  oak,  hickory  and  chestnut.     In  Florida,  the  black- 
jack  (Querctis  nigra)  often  follows   the  long-leaved  pine  (Pinus 
australis). 

328.  These  facts  have  by  some  been  regarded  as  favoring  a  theory 
of  rotation  of  crops  in  timber,  by  natural  causes,  as  we  practice 
with  advantage  in  agriculture ;  but,  according  to  the  best  received 
opinions,  this  alternation  is  not  a  law  of  nature,  but  rather  the  re- 
sult of  external  circumstances,  which  will  generally  be  found  suf- 
ficient to  account  for  all  the  facts  we  meet  with.     Either  the  decid- 
uous or  the  resinous  species  can  be  introduced  and  maintained  by 
the  aid  of  judicious  cultivation,  in  places  where  the  conditions  for 
their  welfare  exist  in  the  soil  or  climate. 

329.  But  as  different  trees  do  not  draw  equally  from  the  soil,  we 
should  study  the  natural  adaptation  of  the  conditions  of  the  local- 
ity, and  seek  to  accommodate  the  species  to  them,  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage.    In  another  part  of  this  work,  we  notice  some  of  the  agen- 
cies through  which  this  natural  seeding  may  occur.1 

330.  In  seeking  to  continue  the  production  of  the  same  species 
upon  a  soil  where  it  has  formerly  prospered,  we  must  never  allow 
the  soil  to  become  impoverished  by  the  removal  of  the  dead  leaves 

1  See  pages  30-33. 


Acts  relating  to  Timber  on  the  Public  Lands.          91 

and  rubbish.  If  this  is  done,  the  fertility  is  diminished,  in  a  man- 
ner comparable  to  that  of  agricultural  lauds  that  will  gradually  be- 
come exhausted,  unless  manures  are  applied.  In  no  form  of  forest- 
culture  is  there  a  tendency  to  general  exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  long 
continued  use,  as  we  observe  in  agricultural  cultivation;  still  there 
may  be  an  exhaustion  of  the  local  supply  for  the  roots  of  trees  in 
particular  places,  and  when  this  occurs  the  trees  may  languish  and 
die,  or  their  growth  may  be  checked.  This  sometimes  happens  in 
ornamental  planting,  where  very  fertile  soil  is  used  for  filling  in  the 
holes,  and  where  these  holes  are  dug  in  a  very  poor  soil. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ACTS   OF   CONGRESS   RELATING   TO   TIMBER  RIGHTS. 

Entry  of  Land  under  the  Timber-culture  Acts. 

331.  By  an  act  of  Congress  approved  March  3, 1873,  and  amended 
March  13,  1874,  and  again  June  14,  1878,  any  person  who  is  the 
head  of  a  family,  or  who  has  arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and 
is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  who  has  filed  his  declaration  of 
intention  to  become  such,  may  apply  at  the  office  of  the  Register  of 
a  Land  District,  for  the  entry  of  any  vacant  land  in  such  district  as 
a  timber  claim,  upon  the  following  conditions : 

332.  The  amount  may  not  be  more  than  a  quarter  section  (160 
acres)  to  one  person,  nor  more  than  this  amount  can  be  taken  up 
by  any  person  in  one  section.     The  applicant  must  make  oath  that 
the  land  is  composed  wholly  of  prairie  lands,  or  other  lands  devoid 
of  timber ;  that  the  entry  is  made  for  the  cultivation  of  timber,  and 
for  his  own  exclusive  use  and  benefit,  and  in  good  faith,  and  not  for  the 
purpose  of  speculation,  or  directly  or  indirectly  for  the  use  or  bene- 
fit of  any  other  person ;  and  that  he  intends  to  hold  and  cultivate 
the  land,  and  fully  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  law.     He 
must  also  swear  that  he  has  not  previously  entered  any  lands  under 
the  present  act,  or  the  acts  of  which  it  is  amendatory. 

333.  Upon  the  payment  of  a  fee  of  $10,  and  the  further  sum  of 
$4,  for  commissions,  if  for  more  than  eighty  acres,  or  of  $5  and  $4 
if  eighty  acres  or  less,  he  receives  a  certificate  of  entry,  and  may 
occupy  at  once,  upon  the  following  conditions : 

334.  If  the  entry  is  for  160  acres,  he  must  break  or  plow  five 
acres  the  first  year  and  another  five  acres  the  second  year.     The  land 


92  Acts  relating  to  Timber  on  the  Public  Lands. 

plowed  the  first  year,  must  be  cultivated  by  crop  or  otherwise  in  the 
second  year.  In  the  third  year  he  must  cultivate  the  five  acres 
broken  in  the  second  year,  and  plant  in  timber  trees,  tree-seeds, 
or  cuttings,  the  five  acres  first  broken  or  plowed,  and  cultivate  the 
remainder  that  has  been  broken.  In  the  fourth  yeur,  lie  must  plant 
in  timber  trees,  tree-seeds,  or  cuttings,  the  second  five  acres. 

335.  If  the  entry  is  for  eighty  acres,  the  amount  to  be  broken  and 
planted  must  be  one-half,  or  if  for  forty  acres,  one-fourth  of  the  above 
amount.     If  the  trees,  seeds,  or  cuttings  are  destroyed  by  grass- 
hoppers, or  by  extreme  or  unusual  drouth,  for  any  year  or  term  of 
years,  the  time  for  planting  is  increased  one  year  for  every  such 
year  when  they  have  been  destroyed.     In  applying  for  an  extension 
of  time,  an  affidavit  by  the  applicant,  corroborated  by  two  witnesses, 
must  be  filed,  setting  forth  the  destruction  of  the  trees. 

336.  At  the  end  of  eight  years  from  the  date  of  entry,  or  within 
five  years  thereafter,  the  person  who  made  it,  or  if  he  or  she  be  dead 
his  or  her  heirs  or  legal  representatives  must  prove,  by  two  credible 
witnesses,  that  the  amount  of  land  has  been  plowed,  cultivated, 
planted,  and  protected  as  above  required,  and  a  statement  of  the 
quantity  and  character  of  trees  thus  planted  ;  that  not  less  than 
2,700  trees  were  planted  on  each  acre;  *  and  that  at  least  675  are 
living  and   thrifty,  upon  each  acre,  at  the  time  of  making  such 
proof.     This  will  then  entitle  him  to  a  patent  for  the  quarter- sec- 
tion, or  less  amount  of  laud  that  was  entered. 

337.  The  claim  is  forfeited  at  any  time  before  the  eight  years, 
upon  neglect  of  any  of  the  conditions,  and  may  be  entered  by  another 
person,  either  as  a  homestead  or  as  a  timber  claim,  the  original 
claimant  being  notified  as  prescribed  by  rules,  and  his  rights  deter- 
mined by  evidence,  as  in  other  contested  cases. 

338.  Timber-claims  are  not  liable  to  the  satisfaction  of  debts  con- 
tracted before  date  of  final  certificate.     The  penalties  prescribed 
with  respect  to  oaths  and  affirmations  falsely  made  in  other  cases  ap- 
ply to  this,  and  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  is  re- 
quired to  issue  rules  and  regulations  for  the  execution  of  the  act. 

339.  Entries  made  under  the  acts  of  1873  or  1874  may  be  com- 
pleted under  the  act  of  1878,  upon  complying  with  its  conditions, 
and  in  this  case  it  is  not  necessary  to  prove  that  the  manner  of 

1  Equivalent  to  rows  four  feet  apart  each  wa}'. 


Acts  of  Congress  relating  to  Timber  Rights.  93 

planting  begun  under  former  acts  were  complied  with.     It  may  have 
been  done  under  the  manner  prescribed  by  either  of  these  acts. 

340.  With  respect  to  the  kinds  of  trees  that  might  be  regarded 
as  timber  trees,  within  the  meaning  of  the  law,  the  following  were 
specified,  viz.:   "Ash,  alder,  beech,  birch,  black-walnut,  basswood, 
black-locust,  cedar,  chestnut,  cottonwood,  elm,  fir,  including  spruce, 
hickory,  honey -locust,  larch,  maple,  including  box-elder,  oak,  pine, 
plane-tree,  otherwise  called   cotton-tree,  buttonwood   or  sycamore, 
service-tree,  otherwise  called  mountain-ash,  white-walnut,  otherwise 
called   butternut,  white-willow,    and   whitewood,    otherwise   called 
tulip-tree." 

341.  The  above  list  was  only  intended  as  a  general  guide,  and 
will  not  be  construed  to  exclude  any  trees  falling  within  the  descrip- 
tion of  trees  recognized  in  the  neighborhood  as  of  value  for  timber, 
or  for  commercial  purposes,  or  for  firewood  and  domestic  use.1 

342.  The  preparation  of  the  land  and  the  planting  of  trees  being 
acts  of  cultivation,  the  time  so  employed  is  to  be  counted  as  a  part 
of  the  eight  years  of  cultivation  required  by  law.     Final  proof  must 
be  made  in  person,  with  his  witnesses,  and  in  the  Land  District  where 
the  land  is  located.     The  testimony  must  bo  given  before  a  Judge 
or  Clerk  of  a  court  of  record  in  that  Land  District,  and  the  identity 
and  credibility  of  the  party  making  the  affidavit  must  be  certified 
by  the  officer  administering  the  oath. 

343.  The  sum  of  $4,  in  addition  to  the  amount  paid  upon  entry, 
must  be  paid  when  the  final  proof  is  made.     No  additional  fees  are 
required  or  allowed. 

344.  By  official  rulings  entries  by  subdivisions  of  quarter-sections 
may  be  made,  if  in  the  same  section,  and  in  a  compact  body,  not 
exceeding  160  acres  in  all.     Where  an  entry  is  made  upon  a  claim 
that  has  been  abandoned  after  breaking  or  planting,  the  second 
party  is  not  entitled  to  any  allowances  for  the  work  done.     After 
entry  of  160  acres,  if  from  sickness  the  party  can  not  complete  the 

1  This  general  permission  was  granted  by  n  decision  of  February  10,  1882. 
The  omissions  in  the  list  previously  enumerated  had  given  rise  to  severe  criti- 
cisms. Either  of  the  following  might  in  some  localities  be  found  worth  cul- 
tivating as  t'mber  trees,  and  several  of  them  may  be  classed  among  the 
more  valuable  kinds,  viz:  Ailanthus,  blue-beech,  cherry  (especially  the 
black  cherry,)  gum-trees,  hack  berry,  iron-wood,  osage-orange,  peach,  pear, 
apple,  plum,  etc. 


94  Acts  of  Congress  relating  to  Timber  Eights. 

planting,  if  the  amount  broken  be  as  much  as  the  law  requires  for 
a  less  amount,  he  may  relinquish  80  acres,  retaining  the  part  on 
which  work  is  begun.  A  claim  once  entered  can  not  be  exchanged 
for  another. 

945.  A  strict  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  law  has  been  held 
as  necessary.  Should  less  than  five  acres  be  broken,  for  example, 
in  one  year,  the  difference  could  not  be  made  up  by  an  excess  of 
plowing  the  second  year.  The  word  "  cultivation"  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  the  raising  of  a  crop.  It  may  be  done  by  plowing, 
harrowing,  or  otherwise. 

346.  Every  timber-culture  entry  is  made  subject  to  a  right  of  con- 
test, by  any  person  who  can  show  non-compliance  as  a  ground  of 
forfeiture.     He  who  faithfully  complies  with  the  law  has  little  to 
apprehend,  for  contestants  must  pay  the  costs  if  not  successful. 

347.  Where  a  scattered  growth  of  trees  exists  on  the  margin  of  a 
stream  or  a  section  of  laud,  and  there  are  none  growing  elsewhere 
on  the  section,  it  has  been  held  that  the  tract  is  "  naturally  devoid  of 
timber"  if  there  are  less  than  50  trees  to  the  section.     The  quality 
of  the  trees,  rather  than  their  number,  has  determined  questions 
arising  upon  this  point.     Because  a  tract  was  covered  by  a  prior 
timber-culture  entry,  this  is  not  evidence  that  the  laud  is  properly 
subject  to  the  timber-culture  law.     The  person  who  makes  affidavit 
should  assure  himself  of  the  fact. 

Planting  under  the  Homestead- Entry  Act. 

348.  Under  an  act  relating  to  homestead  entries,  in  force  from 
March  13,  1874,  to  June  14,  1878,  a  person   entitled  under  the 
homestead  act,  who  at  any  time  after  the  third  year  of  his  or  her 
residence  thereon,  had,  in  addition  to  the  settlement  and  improve- 
ments required  by  law,  brough  t  under  cultivation  for  two  years  one  acre 
of  timber,  not  more  than  twelve  feet  apart  each  way,  and  had  kept 
it  in  good  thrifty  condition,  for  each  sixteen  acres  of  his  homestead, 
he  was  entitled  to  receive  a  patent  for  the  same,  upon  proof  of  the 
fact.    The  rights  acquired  while  this  act  was  in  force,  will  remain 
valid,  until  the  limitation  of  that  act  has  expired. 

Use  of  Timber  by  Railroad  Companies. 

349.  By  an  act  approved  March  3, 1878,  entitled  "  an  act  granting 
to  railroads  the  right  of  way  through  the  public  lands  of  the  United 
States,"  these  companies  are  allowed  the  right  of  100  feet  on  each 


Acts  relating  to  Timber  on  the  Public  Lands.  95 

side  of  the  central  line  of  their  road,  and  the  right  to  take  from  the 
public  lands  adjacent  to  the  line  of  said  road  the  timber  and  other 
materials  necessary  for  construction,  and  a  tract  not  to  exceed 
twenty  acres  in  a  place,  once  in  ten  miles,  for  a  station. 

Privileges  granted  to  the  Citizens  of  Colorado,  Nevada,  and  the  Terri- 
tories. 

350.  By  "An  Act  authorizing  the  citizens  of  Colorado,  Nevada, 
and  the  Territories,  to  remove  Timber  on  the  Public  Domain  for  Min- 
ing and  Domestic  Purposes,"  approved  June  3,  1878,  the  bona  fide 
residents  of  the  above  states,  and  the  territories  of  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Utah,  Wyoming,  Dakota,  Idaho  and  Montana,  and  all  other 
mineral  districts  of  the  United  States,  were  permitted  to  take  any 
timber  or  other  trees  growing  on  the  public  lands,  said  lands  being 
mineral,  and  not  subject  to  entry,  as  they  might  need  for  building, 
agricutural,  mining,  or  domestic  purposes,  subject  to  such  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  might  prescribe. 

Sale  of  Timber  Lands  in  California,  Oregon,  and  Nevada,  and  in  Wash- 
ington Territory. 

351.  By  an  act  of  June  3,  1878,  providing  for  the  survey  of  pub- 
lic lands  in  the  above  states  and  territories  which  are  chiefly  valu- 
able for  timber  but  unfit  for  cultivation,  and  which  had  not  been 
offered  for  sale,  it  is  provided  that  such  lands  may  be  sold  in  quan- 
tities not  exceeding  160  acres  to  one  person,  at  a  minimum  price  of 
$2.50  per  acre.     During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1881,  there  were 
entered  the  following  amounts  : 

In  California,  179  entries=19,829.66  acres. 

In  Washington  Ter.,  134  entries=16,436       acres. 
In  Oregon,  49  entries=  5,044.55  acres. 

In  Nevada,  1  entry  =      160       acres. 

352.  An  applicant  must  make  affidavit  that  he  is  a  citizen,  or  has 
filed  a  declaration  of  intention  to  become  such  ;  that  the  land  is  un- 
fit for  cultivation,  and  chiefly  valuable  for  timber  (or  stone)  ;  that 
it  is  uninhabited;  that  it  has  not  gold,  silver,  cinnabar,  copper,  or 
coal ;  that  he  has  made  no  previous  application ;  does  not  buy  on 
speculation  ;  and  has  not  made  any  agreement  by  which  the  benefit 
shall  accrue  to  any  other  person.      This  allegation  must  be  sup- 
ported by  that  of  two  other  persons  who  have  no  interest  in  the 


96  European  Plans  of  Forest  Management. 

transaction.  After  advertisement  for  sixty  days,  if  no  adverse 
claim  is  filed,  the  land  may  be  conveyed.  This  act  does  not  re- 
serve land  covered  by  timber  and  fit  fur  cultivation  from  the  opera- 
tion of  the  homestead  or  pre-emption  laws.  A  person  resident  on  a 
timber  claim  has  been  allowed  to  change  it  to  a  homestead  entry, 
upon  relinquishing  the  former,  under  section  3,  Act  of  May  14,  1880. 
Applicants  are  not  allowed  to  remove  the  timber  from  the  land  em- 
braced in  their  application  prior  to  making  proof  and  payment. 

CHAPTER  X. 

EUROPEAN   PLANS   OF   FOREST   MANAGEMENT. 

359.  In  countries  where  Forestry  has  been  studied  with  most 
care,  several  different  systems  of  management  have  been  devised, 
in  each  of  which  certain  advantages  may  be  gained  when  properly 
employed.     The  preference  that  should  be  given  to  one  or  another, 
must  in  all  cases  be  determined  by  the  circumstances  and  conditions. 
They  are  as  follows : 

(1.)   Method  of  Selection.1 

360.  In  this  method,  the  trees  are  cut  out  here  and  there,  leaving 
others  not  yet  mature  to  grow  to  their  full  size.     It  is  the  same  plan 
that  we  see  in  common  use,  in  the  tracts  of  woodland  reserved  upon 
farms,  in  the  older  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  the  timber  is 
cut  out  here  and  there,  as  it  is  wanted  for  particular  uses,  or  as  it 
begins  to  decay. 

361.  It  is  also  employed  to  some  extent  in  the  cutting  of  trees  for 
lumber,  chiefly  in  pine,  cedar,  or  spruce  forests,  where  all  the  trees 
above  a  certain  diameter  are  cut  out,  and  those  of  smaller  size  are 
left,  until  the  tract  can  again  be  cut  over  in  like  manner. 

362.  It  results  from  this  management,  that  the  forest  always 
presents  a  great  diversity  of  growth  of  young  trees  among  the  old, 
and  the  actual  amount  of  wood  upon  such  a  tract  is  generally  much 
less  than  where  a  great  uniformity  in  size  and  age  has  been  main- 
tained.    As  too  often  practiced  upon  farms,  if  cattle  and  sheep  are 
allowed  to  pasture  in  such  woods,  the  seedlings  and  young  sprouts 

1  Called  by  the  French  "Jardinage"  literally  "gardening;"  or  sometimes 
"fiierlage"  that  is,  "stealing"  here  and  there  from  the  forest,  as  described 
in  the  text. 


European  Plans  of  Forest  Management.  97 

are  eaten  off,  or  are  broken  down,  and    the   tendency  to  ruin  is 
hastened. 

363.  In  such  woodlands,  where  trees  are  felled  every  year,  the 
young  timber  is  very  liable  to  injury, — bare  places  are  very  apt  to 
form,  and  the  general  tendency  is  to  a  continual  narrowing  in  of 
the  boundary  and  final  clearing  off.     In  such  irregular  forests,  the 
wirus  are  apt  to  do  more  injury  than  where  the  growth  is  uniform, 
and  the  timber  itself  is  generally  not  so  valuable,  on  account  of  the 
injuries  and  accidents  to  which  it  is  exposed  when  young,  and  the 
unequal  growth  that  it  forms.     Nevertheless,  in  certain  cases,  it  is 
the  only  form  of  management  that  is  admissible,  as,  for  example, 
upon  a  mountain  side  liable  to  erosion  from  torrents,  if  all  cleared 
at  once,  or  in  places  difficult  of  access,  where  large  timber  could 
not  be  got  out,  or  upon  loose  sands  that  might  be  liable  to  drift,  if 
fully  exposed  to  the  winds. 

364.  In  the  case  of   pine  or  spruce  woodlands,   and   in   cedar 
swamps,  where  ail  interval  of  several  years  occurs  between  the  cut- 
tings, and  due  protection  is  given,  the  practice  of  selection  is  a  good 
one,  because  in  such  cases  a  chance  for  seeding  is  afforded  at  each 
partial  clearing,  and  the  younger  growth  has  the  benefit  of  air  and 
light,  most  favorable  to  its  welfare. 

365.  In  all  cases,  where  the  young  growth  becomes  too  dense,  so 
that  the  branches  interlock,  it  is  advisable  to  thin  out  a  part,  in 
order  to  favor  the  growth  of  the  remainder.     In  some  localities,  the 
young  trees  thus  taken  out  may  be  profitably  used  for  stakes  and 
poles,  affording  a  small  revenue  to  the  owner. 

(2.)  Method  of  Coppice-growth. 

366.  The  term  "coppice"  is  applied  to  a  woodland  that  is  cut 
off  completely  when  the  timber  has  grown  to  a  size  for  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  intended,  and  a  new  growth  is  allowed  to  spring  up  from 
the  roots  and  stumps. 

367.  We  have  scarcely  an  instance  among  the  resinous  species  in 
which  this  can  be  done  with  advantage.     But  very  few *  will  sprout 

lfThe  redwood  of  California  (Sequoia  sempervirens)  is  a  notable  exception 
to  this  rule,  as  it  sprouts  freely  from  the  stump,  and  even  from  the  fallen 
timber,  if  cut  at  the  proper  season.  The  pitch-pine  of  New  England  (Pinus 
rigirln)  shows  some  tendency  to  sprout,  but  the  sprouts  seldom  attain  much 
growth. 

7 


98  European  Plans  of  Forest  Management. 

from  the  stump  at  all,  arid  of  these  the  after-growth  does  not  pro- 
duce a  new  crop  of  much  value. 

368.  Although  most  deciduous  trees  will  sprout  when  cut,  some 
of  them,  especially  the  beech  and  the  maple,  will  scarcely  grow  to 
advantage.  In  other  kinds,  as  the  chestnut,  oaks,  ashes,  poplars, 
willows,  linden,  etc.,  the  second  growth  under  favorable  conditions 
is  very  good.  As  a  rule,  the  growth  is  best  when  the  cutting  is 
nearly  or  quite  level  with  the  ground,  for  then  the  sprouts  are  able 
to  get  independent  roots. 

370.  If,  however,  a  second  growth  had  already  been  obtained,  it 
would  be  better  to  cut  a  little  higher,  and  in  the  new  wood,  where 
the  growth  would  be  more  likely  to  succeed  than  under  the  hardened 
bark  of  the  old  wood. 

371.  To  insure  success  by  this  method,  the  timber  must  be  cut  a 
little  before  the  season  when  growth  begins.    In  a  climate  so  varied  as 
we  find  in  the  United  States,  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  fix  this 
time  by  a  general  rule,  and  even  in  a  given  locality  it  might  vary 
in  different  years.     In  the  Northern  States,  the  latter  part  of  win- 
ter would  be  best ;  but  in  intensely  cold  and  dry  weather  the  frost 
might  so  injure  and  loosen  the  bark  that  it  would  separate  from  the 
wood,  and  the  vitality  of  the  stump  would  be  weakened  cr  de- 
troyed. 

372.  In  some  species,  the  flow  of  sap  will  tend  to  injury  if  the 
cutting  is  done  too  near  the  time  when  it  begins  to  start.     It  is  de- 
sirable to  have  the  full  effect  of  the  first  impulse  of  growth,  and  if 
the  cutting  be  delayed  until  after  this  has  advanced  the  sprouts  be- 
come weak. 

373.  In  mild  climates,  where  we  have  no  fear  of  heavy  winter 
frosts,  the  cutting  may  be  done  at  any  time  after  the  fall  of  the 
leaves,  or  in  the  broad-leaved  evergreens,  as  soon  as  the  movement 
of  the  second  sap  has  ceased. 

374.  If  cut  in  midsummer  or  early  autumn,  after  the  growth  of 
wood  for  the  year  has  formed,  no  sprouts  will  form,  or  they  will  be 
feeble  and  transient. 

375.  It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  as  the  sprouts  from  a  stump 
start  from  along  the  line  of  junction  between  the  wood  and  the  bark, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  wound  or  tear  off  the  bark  when  cut. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  go  over  the  stumps  with  a  sharp  adze, 
and  carefully  trim  the  edges,  always  cutting  towards  the  center,  so 


European  Plans  of  Forest  Management.  99 

as  to  leave  the  edges  smooth  and  the  stump  convex.  This  will  en- 
able it  to  shed  off  the  rains  which  might  otherwise  settle  in  hollow 
places  and  hasten  decay. 

376.  As  only  a  few  of  the  sprouts  that  come  up  from  the  stump 
arc  wanted  as  trees,  a  part  of  them  should  be  cut  off.     If  some  of 
them  are  bent  down,  secured  in  place  by  pegs,  and  partly  covered 
with  soil,  they  will  take  root  and  become  independent  trees,  when 
separated  from  the  parent  stock.     In  putting  down  these  layers,  the 
part  that  is  buried  should  be  partly  cut  off,  and  the  tip  end  be  left 
exposed. 

377.  In  some  species,  as  in  the  locust,  and  in  many  of  the  pop- 
lars, we  find  a  strong  tendency  to  spread  by  sending  up  sprouts 
from  the  roots,   often  at  a  great  distance  from  the  parent  tree. 
These  sprouts  will  readily  form  thrifty  trees,  and  where  these  tracing 
roots  are  broken,  and  the  ends  brought  to  the  surface,  they  grow 
readily  from  these  ends. 

378.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  hasten  the  growth  of  trees  from 
sprouts  and  the  ground  is  full  of  small  roots,  we  may  break  these 
and  bring  their  ends  to  the  air  and  thus  hasten  a  new  growth.    This 
can  be  done  where  poplars  have  been  cut  off,  and  a  new  crop  is  de- 
sired. 

379.  It  is  needless  to  remark  that  a  coppice  growth  scarcely  ad- 
mits of  any  kind  of  pasturage  at  any  time  during  its  growth,  and 
that  to  insure  success  it  should  always  be  kept  inclosed.     In  some 
countries,  the  leaves  are  gathered  while  still  green,  and  dried  for 
winter  fodder. 

380.  The  period  at  which  a  coppice  may  be  cut  depends  upon  the 
uses  to  which  the  wood  is  to  be  applied,  and  the  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  and  exposure  under  which  it  has  grown.     It  should  never 
extend  beyond  forty,  and  it  may  be  reduced  to  fifteen,  or  even  to 
ten  years.     It  will  be  very  liable  to  be  governed  by  the  wants  of  the 
owner  and  the  market  prices  of  timber.    Generally,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  years  is  ample  time  for  firewood,  charcoal,  railroad  ties,  etc. 
For  hoop  poles  and  other  small  wood  it  may  be  cut  in  five  or  six 
years. 

381.  As  a  general  rule,  the  result  is  best  where  the  period  is  uni- 
form, but  this  can  not  be  determined  in  a  given  locality  until  all 
the  circumstances  of  growth  and  the  opportunities  for  market  are 
known.     The  wood  should  be  taken  out  before  the  sprouts  get  up 


100  European  Plans  of  Forest  Management. 

so  as  to  be  liable  to  injury,  and  the  brush  should  be  burned  as  soon 
as  may  be — if  possible  in  the  spring  of  the  same  year. 

882.  Roads  are  of  first  importance  for  facilitating  the  removal  of 
products,  and  when  kept  free  from  dry  litter,  they  afford  lines  of 
defense  in  case  of  forest  fires. 

383.  Sometimes  one  or  two  agricultural  crops  are  taken  off  at  the 
time  of  cutting  of  a  coppice.     The  benefit  in  exceptional  cases  may 
be  considerable,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  do  more  harm  than  good. 

384.  One  of  the  most  important  applications  of  the  method  of 
coppice  growth,  in  Europe,  is  for  the  production  of  oak  bark,  to  be 
used  in  tanning,  as  will  be  elsewhere  more  fully  noticed. 

385.  As  the  trees  in  a  coppice  do  not  come  to  maturity,  they  seldom 
tend  to  seed  themselves,  or  if  this  occurs  it  is  apt  to  result  that  in- 
ferior species  of  easy  and  rapid  growth  may  get  an  undue  start,  and 
tend  to  supplant  the  more  valuable  kinds.     It  is  always  advisable 
to  notice  the  void  places  in  a  coppice  woodland,  and  plant  or  sow 
them  jit  the  proper  season.     In  this,  attention  should  be  given  to 
favor  the  more  valuable  kinds.     A  proper  mixture  of  species  will 
sometimes  yield  a  greater  quantity  of  material  and  more  profit,  in  a 
given  time,  than  when  it  is  all  alike. 

386.  As  coppice  woods  must  be  cut  in  the  season  when  the  sap  is 
about  to  start,  the  durability  of  the  wood  is  not  so  great  as  when 
cut  in  the  dormant  season.     For  some  uses  this  is  not  important, 
but  in  others,  as  in  the  case  of  railroad  ties,  posts,  and  the  like,  it 
becomes  a  question  for  consideration  as  to  whether  the  season  of  cut- 
ting should  not  be  that  which  tends  to  greater  durability,  at  the  risk1 
of  failure  of  reproduction  by  coppice-growth. 

387.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  best  success  in  reproduction 
after  cutting,  occurs  in  rich  and  humid  soil,  and  in  a  damp  climate, 
and  that  as  we  pass  to  those  that  are  dryer  the  chances  become 
less,  until  we  approach  those  of  the  arid  type,  when  they  disappear 
altogether.    'From  the  greater  dryness  of  our  climate,  as  compared 
with  that  of  Europe,  we  can  not  so  uniformly  depend  upon  this 
method  as  there. 

808.  In  a  given  species  it  is  observed  that  the  tendency  to  send 
up  vigorous  sprouts  diminishes  with  age,  and  that  finally  it  ceases 
almost  entirely.  We  should  not  therefore  depend  upon  the  stumps 
of  trees  of  large  size  for  the  growth  of  coppice  wood.  In  cases 
where  it  is  desirable  to  hasten  their  decay,  to  get  room  for  others, 


European  Plans  of  Forest  Management.  101 

they  may  be  cut  concave,  so  that  the  rain-water  will  settle  upon 
them  instead  cf  running  off. 

389.  In  skilled  forestry  there  is  a  constant  effort  to  increase  the 
production  of  a  given  area,  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wood 
grown.     Since  coppice  woods  are  generally  cut  before  maturity, 
their  timber  has  not  the  size  or  excellence  that  allow  it  to  be  used 
where  pieces  of  large  dimensions  and  great  strength  are  needed,  and 
it  lias  been  customary  at  every  cutting  to  reserve  some  of  the  finest 
and  thriftiest  trees  and  allow  them  to  grow  to  a  second,  third,  fourth, 
or  fifth  period,  thereby  attaining  their  greatest  size  and  value.1 

390.  These  reserved  trees  affect  the  young  growth  around  them, 
either  by  their  covert  or  their  shade. 

(a.)  The  covert  of  a  tree  is  the  action  that  a  tree  may  have  upon 
the  space  that  is  covered  by  the  top  and  branches,  and  it  is  gener- 
ally injurious,  by  intercepting  a  part  of  the  rain  and  much  of  the 
light,  and  by  preventing  the  formation  of  dew. 

(6.)  The  shade  is  the  shadow  which  a  tree  casts  at  different  times 
in  the  day,  and  where  it  does  not  rest  too  long,  and  alternates  with 
sunshine,  it  is  almost  always  salutary  to  the  young  growth.  It  tends 
to  prevent  evaporation,  while  it  does  not  hinder  the  free  access  of 
the  air. 

391.  As  a  rule,  the  reserves  should  not  cover  more  than  from  the 
twentieth  to  the  sixteenth  part  of  the  surface,  and  they  should  be 
distributed  as  uniformly  as  possible.     At  every  cutting  some  should 
be  taken  out,  so  that  the  number  of  each  class  becomes  less. 

392.  The  oak,  when  thus  left  under  an  unusual  exposure  of  the 
sun  and  air,  is  especially  liable  to  put  out  large  lateral  branches  of 
vigorous  growth.     These  * '  gormaud  "  branches  should  not  be  allowed 
to  become  large,  and  can  best  be  trimmed  off  close  to  the  trunk,  and 
late  in  summer.     They  will  then  be  less  liable  to  sprout  the  n^xt 
spring,  and   may  sooner  heal  over  with   new  wood.     It  is  a  good 
practice  to  paint  over  these  wounds  with  coal-tar. 

1  The  trees  thus  left,  received  certain  names  according  to  the  periods  they 
are  left  over.  In  French  forestry  these  names,  with  their  English  equiva- 
lents, as  nearly  as  can  be  rendered,  are  hs  follows- 

1st  period.  Baliceau — "  young  reserves." 

2d  period.  Moderncs — "  moderns." 

3d  period.  Anciens,  2d  class — "  old,  of  2d  class. 

4th  period,  Anciens  1st  class — old,  of  l*t  class. 

5th  period.    Vieilles  ecurces — "old-bark." 


102  European  Plans  of  Forest  Management. 

393.  In  the  case  of  timber  used  for  ship  building,  the  knees  and 
other  curved  or  angular  parts  are  generally  taken  from  trees  that 
have  the  desired  shapes.    These  arc  oftener  found  along  the  borders 
of  a  woodland  than  in  the  interior,  and  the  reserves  affording  these 
forms  being  more  desirable,  more  of  them  may  be  left  in  propor- 
tion to  their  number  than  of  others  that  are  more  upright.     It  has 
been  practiced  to  some  extent,  to  bend  and  confine  young  trees,  to 
secure  these  curves  and  forms  that  give  them  special  value  for  cer- 
tain uses.     This  may  be  done  by  fastening  one  branch  to  another 
of  the  same  tree,  or  by  binding  it  to  the  ground,  or  fastening  it  to  a 
plank  molded  to  the  proper  curve,  until  it  will  stay  in  place. 

(3.)      The  Growing  of  Woodlands  to  full  Maturity.1 

394.  For  the  production  of  large  timber,  of  great  strength,  and 
fit   for  the  most  important  uses  in  civil  and  naval    constructions, 
a  special  course  of  management  is  required,  which  we  will  briefly 
describe,  although  it  has  not  hitherto  been  much  followed,  except 
upon  lands  belonging  to  governments,  and  in  a  large  degree  for  the 
supply  of  their  own  wants. 

.395.  In  this  form  of  cultivation,  the  trees  are  generally  all  started 
at  the  same  period,  and  at  all  stages  of  growth  they  are  of  the  same 
age  and  size,  but  progressively  become  less  in  number,  by  thinning 
out  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  allow  the  remainder  a  better 
chance  to  grow. 

396.  The  period  of  "  revolution  "  with  the  same  kinds  varies  with 
the  richness  of  the  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  exposure,   and  it  is 
longer  in  some  kinds  than  with  others. 

397.  The  deciduous  kinds  most  prized  for  this  are  the  English 
oak,2   beech,    elm,    ash,    sycamore,    maple,    hornbeam,   birch,  and 
locust,  often  more  or  less  mixed,  and  sometimes  with  spruces,  firs, 
and  pines.     The  conifers  can  be  cultivated  only  in  this  way  or  by 
"jardinage."     [§  360.] 

398.  The  beginning  is  secured  either  by  sowing  or  planting  (upon 

1  We  have  no  single  word  in  the  English  language  to  express  the  idea 
which  the  French  convey  in  the  wordfutaie,  and  the  Germans  in  hoc.hwnld, 
meaning  a  forest  grown  to  full  age,  in  a  period  ranging  from  60  or  70  years, 
to  150  or  200. 

2  Quercus  pedunculatrt ,  and   Q.  sessiliftora,  by  some   botanists  regarded  as 
varieties  of  the  same  species,  which  they  name  Quercus  robur. 


European  Plans  of  Forest  Management.  103 

ground  previously  prepared)  over  its  whole  surface,  or  in  squares  or 
pockets,  so  as  to  be  near  enough  together  to  shade  the  whole  ground 
in  two  or  three  years,  and  thus  take  an  upward  growth  to  reach  the 
air  and  light.  They  should  be  thinned  out  when  too  dense,  but  no 
rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  time  when,  and  the  extent  to  which  this 
thinning  should  be  done,  where  so  much  depends  upon  circum- 
stances, and  the  judgment  of  the  forester  in  charge. 

399.  In  Germany,  upon  a  good  soil,  and  a  uniform  growth,  the 
number  of  trees  at  different  clearings,  after  the  trees  get  to  be  of  a 
considerable  size,  is  about  as  follows  : 

1st  clearing,  at  30  to    40  years,  1 ,300  to  1 ,600  trees  left  to  an  acre. 
2d         "       "  50  to    60     "         500  to     600 
3d        "       "  70  to    80     "          300  to     400 
4th       "       "90  to  100     "          200  to     250 

400.  In  the  evergreen  or  coniferous  kinds  the  number  left  may 
be  greater,  because,  with  a  given  size  of  body,  the  foliage  is  less. 
Upon  poor  soils  and  in  rude  climates  it  may  be  greater,  because  the 
trees  will  be  smaller,  and  upon  mountain  sides  the  same,  because  the 
trees  do  not  then  shade  one  another  so  much,  and  are  better  exposed 
to  the  light. 

401.  Much  importance  is  attached  to  these  thinnings,  for  they 
secure  a  great  gain  in  value  of  the  final  product,  besides  that  de- 
rived from  the  trees  taken  out,  and  that  would  have  perished  from 
shading  out  if  left  to  themselves.    From  the  first  of  these  thinnings 
they  have  a  value,  which  increased  at  every  time,  from  poles  to 
timber  of  useful  size;  and  at  all  stages  they  furnish  wood  for  fuel 
and  charcoal. 

402.  While  these  accessory  products  afford  in  advanced  stages  a 
revenue,  much  above  the  whole  cost  of  supervision  and  labor,  their 
removal  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  remainder  in  a  notable  degree, 
and  they  gain  much  faster  in  size,  as  their  branches  and  roots  find 
more  room  to  spread.     By  letting  in  the  sun  and  the  air,  they  con- 
tribute to  give  qualities  of  solidity  and  elasticity,  that  they  could 
not  acquire  in  a  dense  shade. 

403.  In  a  well  kept  woodland,  dead  and  dying  trees  should  be 
taken  out  whenever  found,  as  their  presence  favors  the  breeding  of 
beetles,  that  might  injure  the  remaining  trees.     It  is  a  poor  policy  to 
allow  the  dead  leaves  and  the  litter  to  be  taken  out ;  but  when  the 


104  'European  Plans  of  Forest  Management. 

trees  become  large,  the  fattening  of  swine  upon  the  nuts  and  acorns 
is  usually  allowed. 

404.  In  such  a  forest,  in   best  condition,  the  trees  are  much 
nearer  together  than  as  we  commonly  find  them  in  a  wild-wood  i1 
the  ground  is  so  shaded  that  no  grass  will  grow,  and  the  seeds  that 
fall  soon  perish  for  want  of  air  and  light.     In  fact  the  trees  them- 
selves do  not  bear  seeds  as  freely  as  when  they  have  more  space. 

405.  At  the  time  of  these  thinnings,  the  soft  woods   of  more 
rapid  growth,  such  as  the  poplars,  birches,  alders,  etc.,  should  be 
taken  out  where  they  are  not  wanted ;  but  a  mixture  of  kinds,  such 
as  the  oak  and  beech,  or  the  beech  and  Scotch  pine  is  often  en- 
couraged, as  they  agree  well  together,  and  make  a  more  profitable 
product  than  either  would  alone.     As  the  oak  yields  a  more  valu- 
able timber,  they  generally  prefer  to  give  it  a  greater  chance. 

406.  Care  should  be  taken  to  clear  out  the  brambles  and  shrubs, 
good  for  nothing  but  faggots,  and  which  are  bound  in  bundles  and 
sold.     The  branches  of  trees   cut   in   thinning  are   also   used   as 
faggots. 

407.  Finally,  as  the  time  for  general  cutting  draws  near,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  for  a  new  forest-growth,  the  seeding 
of  the  plants  that  are  to  form  the  future  forest  is  secured  without 
cost,  and  with  great  success,  by  a  simple  course  of  management  that 
deserves  careful  notice  : 

408.  At  first,  they  take  out  some  of  the  trees  uniformly  over  the 
whole  surface,  so  as  to  let  in  the  air  and  light,  and  thus  favor  the 
remaining  trees  in  bearing  fruit.     The  seeds  that  form  fall  under  or 
near  the  parent  trees,  and  become  lightly  covered  by  the  leaves  of 
the  same  season.     Being  on  the  surface  of  a  rich  soil,  which  has 
been  forming  for  a  long  period,  from  the  decay  of  foliage,  and  now 
exposed  to  the  sun's  light  and  warmth,  they  spring  up  as  young 

1  Nothing  can  be  more  impressive  to  one  accustomed  only  to  the  irregu- 
larity of  an  American  forest,  than  the  sight  of  a  well  kept  European  plan- 
tation in  full  growth.  As  he  looks  into  the  gloomy  recesses,  the  trees  stand 
in  rows  like  organ  pipes,  greatly  exceeding  in  number  those  ever  found 
from  spontaneous  growth,  and  with  a  symmetry  in  size  and  height  that  is 
remarkable.  When  seen  at  a  distance,  such  forests  appear  level  at  the  top, 
and  we  often  see  different  levels,  indicating  differences  in  aire.  The  best 
cultivated  forests  of  Germany  are  worth  from  three  to  five  times  as  much 
as  native  woods. 


OF  THE 

European  Plans  of  Forest  Manage'ttMt'ft  1  V  Bft  SIT 

plants,  and  in  a  year  or  two  the  whole  surface  of  the  woodland  is 
carpeted  with  the  fresh  green  foliage  of  young  seedling  trees. 

409.  These  tender  plants  would  soon  wither  and  perish  in  the  full 
light  of  day  in  an  open  field.     They  need  just  the  kind  of  shelter 
that  the  parent-trees  afford.     The  sunlight  comes  down  sprinkled 
here  and  there,  and  the  shadows  pass  over  them,  so  that  with  this 
alternation  of  light  and  shelter  the  plants  receive  just  the  proportion 
that  is  needed  for  their  most  thrifty  growth. 

410.  As  they  gain  in  size,  they  need  more  light,  and  will  bear 
more  exposure  ;  and  finally,  when  they  need  shelter  no  longer,  the 
remaining  trees  are  carefully  taken  out,  and  the  young  forest  starts 
off  on  a  new  period,  to  supply  timber  fur  the  use  of  generations  un* 
born. 

411.  This  period  in  the  larch  and  the  birch  ranges  from  50  to  60 
years,  or  with  the  former  in  cold  regions  it  may  extend  to  120  or 
140  years.    With  the  locust  and  the  maritime,  Aleppo  and  Corsican 
pines,  it  is  from  GO  to  70  years ;  with  the  Scotch  pine,  it  is  from  80 
to  90  years;  with  the  beech,  from  80  to  140  years;   with  the  ash, 
from  90  to  100  years;  with  the  chestnut,  from  90  to  120  years; 
with  the  spruce,  from  90  to  140  years;   with  the  fir,  from  100  to 
140,  the  average  being  about  120  years;  with  the  elm,  100  to  120 
years  ;  and  with  the  oak,  120  to  200  years. 

412.  The  profits  of  a  full-grown  forest,  as  compared  with  a  cop- 
pice, are  very  great.     It  is  shown  by  Hartig,  a  noted  German  au- 
thor, that  a  high  forest  cut  at  120  years  bears  to  a  coppice  cut  once 
in  30  years,  through  the  same  time,  the  proportion  of  7  to  4,  all  re- 
ceipts and  expenses  being  taken  into  the  account. 

413.  Whenever  the  time  shall  come  that  our  only  supplies  of 
timber  are  furnished  by  cultivation,  great  corporations  will  doubtless 
be   formed,    for   managing   great   forest  properties,  under   skilled 
agents,  and  with  a  capital  that  can  afford  to  wait  a  long  time,  so 
long  as  it  is  earning  a  good  rate,  and  promises  a  sure  profit.     By 
such  means,  forests  can  be  grown  to  great  advantage,  but  best  upon 
an  extensive  scale. 

European  Forest  Administrations. 

414.  In  every  country  upon  the  continent  of  Europe,  considerable 
tracts  of  woodland  belong  to  the  government.     The  local  munici- 
palities (communes,  cities,  etc.)  own  other  tracts,  generally  near  or 


106  European  Forest  Administrations. 

within  their  limits,  and  often  subject  to  rights  of  common  usage, 
such  as  the  supply  of  wood  for  fuel  or  building  purposes,  pasturage, 
feeding  of  swine  upon  acorns,  and  the  like.  Many  public  estab- 
lishments, such  as  churches,  monasteries,  charities,  etc.,  also  own 
forest  estates,  as  a  part  of  their  endowment. 

415.  Over  all  of  these  the  government  has  supervision,  and  there 
has  grown  up  an  organized  branch  of  the  public  service,  known  as 
the  Forest  Administration,  with  regular  grades  of  promotion,   and 
generally  pensions  to  those  who  have  spent  their  strength  in  the 
service  until  their  working  days  are  over. 

416.  In  the  German  States,  and  in  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms, 
the  Forest  Administration  is  generally  a  branch  of  the  Ministry  of 
Finances ;  in  Russia,  in  that  of  the  Imperial  Domains,  and  in  Aus- 
tria, France,  Italy,  and  Spain,  it  is  associated  with  the  Ministry  of 
Agriculture,  or  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  with  some  differences 
due  to  the  organization  of  the  several  governments. 

417.  They  agree  in  having  a  central  administrative  office,  from 
whence  all  important  business  is  ordered,  and  to  which  reports  are 
made.     They  generally  have  in  the  superior  grades  of  service  a 
number  of  inspectors,  who  make  periodical  visits  to  the  different 
forests,  to  observe  their  condition,  and  detect  any  fault  or  neglect 
that  may  have  crept  into  their  management.     It  is  in  some  coun- 
tries the  custom  to  transfer  the  local  superintendents  from  time  to 
time  to  new  fields  of  duty,  as  tending  to  a  more  faithful  discharge 
of  their  trusts. 

418.  There  is  also  a  system  of  forest-guards,  sometimes  organized 
upon  a  military  basis,  for  the  protection  of  timber  and  game,  and 
to  see  that  the  work  of  cutting  and  removal  of  products  is  done  in 
accordance  with  regulations.     These  guards,  when  on  duty,  always 
wear  a  uniform,  and  are  commonly  armed  with  a  carbine.     They 
may  make  summary  arrests,  and  are  held  accountable  for  any  dam- 
age or  trespass  done  within  their  districts  which  are  not  promptly 
reported  by  them  for  investigation  and  punishment. 

419.  For  every  grade  of  service  a  uniform  is  prescribed,  to  be 
worn  when  on  duty,  and  on  certain  public  occasions,  as  in  our  army 
and  navy.    Green,  among  Foresters,  is  a  favorite  color,  and  an  oak- 
leaf-and-acorn  is  a  common  symbol  of  the  profession.     A  marking- 
hammer  is  also  a  symbol  of  the  Forester,  as  is  the  anchor  with  the 
sailor,  or  the  pick  with  the  miner. 


European  Forest  Societies,  Periodicals  and  Schools.   107 

Forest  Societies :   Periodical  Literature. 

420.  Forest  societies  of  various  kinds  are  organized  in  most  coun- 
tries.   These  generally  meet  quarterly  or  annually  for  the  discussion 
of  subjects  of  professional  interest,  and  their  proceedings  are  usually 
published.     These  annual  meetings  usually  last  several  days,  and 
excursions  are  commonly  made  to  places  of  interest.     Besides  these 
associations,  composed  of  proprietors  and  professional  foresters,  there 
are  various  other  associations,  some  for  mutual  relief  of  members, 
and  some  for  special  objects,  such  as  the  maintenance  of  schools  of 
Forestry,  the  prosecution  of  experimental  researches,  the  interests 
concerned  in  the  lumber  and  timber  trade,  etc. 

421.  There  are  also  a  great  number  of  periodicals,  issued  at  reg- 
ular intervals,  and  wholly  or  partly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  For- 
estry.    If  we  include  quarterlies  and  annuals  with   those   issued 
monthly  or  oftener,   the  number  would  amount   to  nearly  fifty. 
Many  of  these  are  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  afford  substan- 
tial aid  to  the  interest  to  which  they  are  devoted. 

Schools  of  Forestry. 

422.  Nearly  every  government   upon    the  continent   in  Europe 
has   established  one  or  more   Schools  of  Forestry,   for  preparing 
young  men  for  service  as  officers  of  the  forest  and  administration. 
None  can  enter  this  service  until  they  have  passed   through   the 
studies  and  practical  exercises  at  these  schools.     The  course  gener- 
ally lasts  two  to  three  years,  and  the  students  must  first  finish  their 
studies  in  the  public  schools.    They  are  taught  mathematics,  natural 
sciences  (especially  botany  and  entomology),  chemistry,  meteorology, 
physics,  sylviculture,  drawing,  surveying,  forest  and  hunting  laws, 
forest  management,  etc.,  and  make  regular  excursions  with  the  pro- 
fessors, for  observation  and  practice. 

423.  The    following    are   the   principal   schools   of  Forestry  in 
Europe.     Those  preceded  by  a  star  are  connected  with  some  univer- 
sity or  other  institution  : 

Austria:  ^Vienna,  Eulenburg,  Weisswasser,  Lemburg,  Aggs- 
bach,  Bergenz,  *Schernnitz,  and  *Gratz,  and  of  lower  grade  in 
other  places. 

Denmark :  ^Copenhagen. 

Finland;  Evois. 


108  Schools  of  Forestry :  Planting  of  Dunes. 

France:  Nancy,  Barres,  and  *Paris.     (Institut  Agronornique.) 

GERMANY  :  Baden,  *Carlsruhe ;  Bavaria,  Aschaflfenbunr,  and 
^Munich ;  Hess<- -Darmstadt,  *Giessen  ;  Prussia,  Eberswalde  and 
Miinden  ;  Saxe-  Weimar,  Eisnach ;  Saxony,  Tharand  ;  Wurtemburg, 
^Tubingen. 

Italy :  Vallombrosa. 

Norway:  At  two  or  three  places  small  elementary  schools. 

Portugal:  ^Lisbon. 

Russia:  St.  Petersburg,  ^Moscow,  Lisino,  and  *Nova  Alexandria 
(Poland),  besides  a  short  course  at  six  farm  schools. 

Spain :  Escorial. 

Sweden:  Stockholm,  and  small  schools  at  seven  other  places. 

Switzerland :  ^Zurich. 

Turkey :  Constantinople. 

424.  These   schools  generally  have  forest  gardens,  laboratories, 
collections  in  natural  history,  and  especially  in  Forestry,  and  special 
libraries   connected  with  them.     In  Austria,  several  of  them   are 
supported  by  Forest  Associations,  composed  of  laud  proprietors  and 
others  interested  in  Forestry.     In  many  universities  and  polytechnic 
institutions,  Forestry  is  incidentally  taught  as  a  part  of  their  general 
course. 

Planting  of  Dunes. 

425.  On  certain  coasts  the  sands  thrown  up  by  the  waves  are 
drifted  by  the  winds  into  hills,  sometimes  two  hundred  feet  or  more 
in  height  and  miles  in  width,  which  are   constantly  changing   in 
form,  and  gradually  advancing  inland.     These  drifting  sands,  by 
closing  the  mouths  of  streams,  generally  cause  a  series  of  ponds 
to  be  formed  behind  them,  which  may  render  the  country  sickly,  as 
well  as  the  soil  worthless  from  overflow.     In  various  places  on  the 
northern  and  western  coast  of  France,  villages  and  hamlets  have  been 
buried  by  drifting  sands,  and  considerable  tracts  of  fertile  land  have 
been  thus  overwhelmed.1     The  planting  of  these  "dunes,"  and  their 
control,  may  be   reckoned   among   the   proudest   achievements  of 
Forestry.  ^ 

426.  In  these  exposed  places,  the  plants  need  shelter  in  getting 
started,  and  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  compel  the  winds  to 
build  a  high  and  regular  embankment  for  their  protection.     To  se- 

1  We  have  an  example  of  these  disasters  at  Grand  Haven,  Michigan, 
where  a  railroad  station  has  been  buried  by  drifting  sands. 


Planting  of  Dunes.  109 

cure  tliis,  a  line  of  obstructions  is  placed  along  the  shore,  three  or 
four  hundred  feet  from  the  water's  edge,  consisting  of  bundles  of 
faggots  set  in  diagonal  rows  near  together,  or  planks  three  or  four 
feet  high,  with  a  space  of  an  inch  between.  A  part  of  the  sand  as 
it  glides  along  will  lodge  in  front  of  these  obstructions,  and  a  part 
will  pass  through  and  settle  behind. 

427.  As  they  get  buried,  a  new  series  of  bundles  of  faggots  is 
set,  or  the  planks  are  drawn  up,  from  time  to  time,  and  a  huge 
mound  of  sand  is  finally  formed,  with  a  gentle  slope  towards  the  sea 
(7°  to  12°)  and  one  more  abrupt  (about  22°)  on  the  land  side.    These 
slopes  are  then  sown  with  beach-grass  and  other  maritime  plants, 
in  squares  like  a  chess-board,  so  that  they  will  spread  and  cover  the 
whole  surface,  and  behind  they  sow  the  seeds  of  trees. 

428.  On  the  southwestern  coast  of  France,  the  most  ample  suc- 
cess has  followed  from  planting  the  maritime  pine  (Pinus  pinaster) , 
the  seeds  being  sown  with  those  of  beach-grass,  and  covered  with 
brush.    This  work  was  begun  by  Bremontier,  an  engineer  under  the 
auspices  of  the  government,  in  1787,  and  is  now  practically  finished 
and  the  whole  coast  covered  with  a  profitable  growth  of  timber.1 

429.  In  other  regions,  where  this  pine  will  not  thrive,  various 
grasses,  with  tracing  roots,  Scotch  pine,  poplars,  willows,  tamarisk, 
and  other  plants  are  set,  as  the  opportunities  present. 

430.  Upon  the  coast  of  Cape  Cod,  in  Massachusetts,  the  pitch 
pine  (P.  rirjida)  and  the  beach-grass  (Calamagrostis  arenaria)  are 
planted  on  the  dunes  with  great  success.     Upon  the  Florida  coast, 
and  further  north,  the  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon)  has  been 
used   with   success,    and    the   maritime    pine   may  succeed   there, 
although  it  has  failed  upon  the  Massachusetts  coast. 

431.  There  are  occasionally  places  in  the  interior  where  the  sands 
exposed  to  the  winds  will  thus  drift,  and  the  surest  way  to  prevent 
this  is  by  planting.     In  this  we  should  begin  on  the  side  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  and  if  the  soil  is  somewhat  damp,  willow  cuttings 

1  In  Octol.er,  1881,  we  rode  some  twenty  miles  on  horseback  among  these 
dunes,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Arcachon  and  La  Teste.  The  pines  are 
largely  used  for  the  production  of  turpentine,  and  are  cut  out  from  time  to 
time,  as  they  become  large,  to  make  room  for  a  younger  growth,  but  never 
in  bodies  together,  or  so  as  to  expose  the  sand.  Many  years  ago  the  govern- 
ment placed  a  monument  in  the  midst  of  the  pines  that  Bremontier  planted, 
to  commemorate  his  «rreat  achievement. 


110  Methods  of  Reboiscment. 

may  provide  the  best  defense.  If  seeds  are  sown,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  cover  them  with  brush,  that  is  fastened  down  with  stakes. 
Under  this  cover,  the  plants  may  get  well  rooted ;  and  if  this  is  se- 
cured, the  success  of  the  work  is  certain. 

Reboisement. 

432.  By  "  reboisement,"  we   mean   the   planting  of  woodlands 
where  they  have  been  destroyed,  and  especially  where  their  destruc- 
tion has  caused  great  injury  from  torrents  by  the  eroding  of  mountain 
sides,  and  covering  the  valleys  below  with  stone  and  gravel.     The 
desolation  and  sterility  thus  occasioned  is  increased  by  pasturage, 
especially  by  sheep  and  goats,  so  that  regions  once  highly  fertile 
and  densely  populated   have   often   become   utterly  desolate  and 
solitary. 

433.  In  recent  years,  most  European  governments  have  taken 
measures  to  stop  these  ruinous  practices,  and  have  with  much  suc- 
cess, but  at  vast  expense,  secured  a  gradual  return  of  fertility,  and 
an  effectual  prevention  of  future  injuries.     These  measures  may  be 
described  under  two  heads : 

(a.)  Barriers  for  checking  the  Torrents. 

434.  These  are  made  of  stone,  in  the  bottoms  of  the  ravines,  and 
convex  up-stream,  the  top  being  lowest  in  the  middle.     They  are 
sometimes   made   of    bundles  of  willow  securely  fastened   down. 
They  will  then  often  spout  and  grow,  thus  by  their  roots  preventing 
further  erosion. 

(6.)  Reboisement  of  the  denuded  Slopes. 

435.  This  is  by  far  the  most  important,  and  often  the  more  diffi- 
cult work  to  be  done,  as  it  tends  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the 
torrents.     The  rains  that  fall  upon   a  wooded,  or  even  a  sodded 
slope,  have  their  force  broken,  and  they  quietly  filter  into  the  soil, 
or  flow  down  with  so  many  obstructions  that  they  do  no  injury. 
But  on  a  bare  surface,  they  begin  to  wear  little  channels,  which 
presently  enlarge  in  width  and  depth,  till  they  become  enormous 
chasms. 

436.  To  secure  a  wooded  or  sheltered  surface,  the  soil  should  be 


Methods  of  Hcboisement.  Ill 

disturbed  as  little  as  possible  in  sowing  or  planting,  and  on  a  north 
slope  the  seed  may  sometimes  be  best  sown  on  the  snow. 

437.  Steep  banks  that  will  probably  slide  or  crumble  down,  should 
be  rendered  more  sloping  before  trees  are  planted.     They  are  dug 
away  at  the  top,  and  the  soil  slid  into  the  ravine  below,  or  some- 
times thrown  down  by  blasting.     A  drain  may  be  secured  by  first 
filling  in  the  bottom  with  trees  and  brush. 

438.  To  obtain  a  chance  for  the  roots  of  trees,  the  steep  naked 
slopes  are  dug  into  horizontal  notches  or  terraces,  beginning  at  the 
top,  and  the  edges  of  these  are  planted  with  almost  any  thing  that 
can  be  made  to  grow,  or  at  least  are  secured  by  fascines  and  strong 
stakes.     These  bands  are  nearer  together  where  the  slope  is  steeper, 
and  the  brush  by  slow  decay  helps  to  fertilize  the  soil.     These  ter- 
races tend  to  get  filled  up  in  a  year  or  two,  and  thus  afford  a  soil 
deep  enough  to  hold  the  trees,  and  then  lines  of  young  trees  from 
nurseries  are  set  along  these  belts  of  deep  soil.     If  they  get  fairly 
rooted,  they  will  secure  the  object  intended,  and  will  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  further  damages. 

439.  Paths  are  made  along  the  banks,  to  give  access  to  the  work, 
and  for  future  use  in  the  removal  of  products,  but  in  these  situa- 
tions no  tree  will  ever  be  taken,  unless  others  are  coming  on  to  re- 
place it.     By  these  costly  but  necessary  methods,  about  one-fourth 
part  of  the  work  to  be  done  in  France  in  the  way  of  restoration  by 
reboisement,  which  was  begun  in  1860,  had  been  accomplished  in 
16  years,  and  63,168  acres  had  been  replanted  with  trees,  at  an 
enormous  cost ;  but  this  expense  was  less  than  the  damages  which 
a  single  flood  might  produce,  and  which  wooded  slopes  on  the  hills 
and  mountains  would  have  prevented. 

440.  In  many  parts  of  our  own  country,  and  especially  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  interior  and  upon  the  Pacific  coast,  the 
greatest  injury  is  being  done  from  the  clearing  and  burning  off  of 
mountain  sides,  and  we  already  notice  a  marked  effect  upon  the 
climate,  aside  from  the  local  damages  to  the  surface  from  this  cause.1 
The  same,  in  less  degree,  may  be  seen  in  every  part  of  the  country, 
wherever  there  are  steep  slopes  exposed  to  heavy  rains;  and  private 
interests  should  lead  to  watchful  care,  in  every  case  where  these 
effects  are  in  operation,  or  are  liable  to  occur. 

1  See  Forestry  Report,  1877,  p.  334,  for  a  statement  of  these  effects. 


112  A  European  Method  of  Forest  Planting. 

On  tJie  Management  of  Forest  Plantations  in  Scotland. 

441.  A  Forester  of  great  experience1  has  given  the  following 
summary  of  the  course  usually  pursued  in  the  management  of  wood- 
lauds  in  Scotland :   "  For  ordinary  planting,  the  size  of  plants  pre- 
ferred are  one  year  as  seedling  and  two  years  transplanted ;  but  for 
bare  heathery  hills,  that  are  much  exposed,  fir  plants  one  year  as 
seedling  and  one  year  transplanted,  or  two  years'  seedling  are  con- 
sidered best.     These  are  planted  by  notching. 

442.  "  The  most  approved  mode  of  planting  coniferous  trees  here 
is  as  follows :  If  the  soil  and  situation  are  considered  likely  to  pro- 
duce larch  (Larix  Europea)  to  maturity  as  sound  timber,  it  is  gen- 
erally planted  as  a  pure  crop,  with  a  very  slight  intermixture  of 
silver  fir  (Abies  pectinata)  and  Scot's  fir  (Pinus  sylvestris)  among  the 
larches.     If  there  is  any  doubt  of  the  larch  being  overtaken  by 
disease,  then  we  plant  larch  and  Scot's  fir  in  equal  numbers,  at  four 
feet  apart,  regularly  intermixing  them. 

443.  "  In  training  them,  the  plantation  may  be  trained  up  as  a 
mixed  one,  or  if  the  larches  prove  healthy,  it  may  be  converted 
wholly  into  a  pure  larch,  or  if  otherwise,  into  a  pure  Scot's  fir 
plantation.     Hence  we  plant  a  larger  area  under  Scot's  fir,  with  a 
considerable  mixture  of  larch,  and  often  on  soft  moorland  a  consid- 
erable number  of  spruce  and  silver  fir ;  but  the  ground,  where  re- 
quiring it,  is  thoroughly  drained  first.     The  trees  are  put  in  by 
slitting. 

444.  "  Oak  and  all  other  hard- wood  trees  are  planted  at  from  12  to 
15  feet  apart,  and  the  intermediate  spaces  are  filled  up  generally 
with  larch  to  four  feet  apart.     A  slight  intermixture  of  other  conif- 
erous trees  is  often  introduced,  so  as  to  augment  the  ornamental 
character  of  the  plantations.     The  larches  and  other  firs  are  gradu- 
ally thinned  out  as  the  plantation  advances,  leaving  a  few  inter- 
mixed for  the  ultimate  crop.     Oak  and  other  hard-wood  trees  are 
planted  by  pitting. 

445.  "  The  thinning  of  fir  plantations  commences  when  they  have 
stood  about  ten  years,  and  is  repeated  at  intervals  of  4  to  6  years, 

1  Mr.  Wm.  McCorquodale,  who  for  45  years  has  held  the  office  of  wood- 
mat  ager  to  the  Earl  of  Mansfield.  Mr.  C.  has  also,  during  this  period,  sur- 
veyed and  reported  upon  the  future  management  of  over  100  other  forest 
estates  in  Scotland. 


Scotch  Plantations:  Ornamental  Planting.          113 

till  the  plantation  arrives  at  about  40  to  45  years  of  age.  At  each 
thiimiug,  the  trees  are  left  standing  about  clear  of  each  other.  At 
certain  stages  of  growth,  the  trees  might  be  thinned  out  to  stand  at 
one-third  of  their  height  apart,  as,  for  example,  trees  of  21  feet 
might  stand  7  feet  apart. 

446.  "  We  have  generally,  for  the  permanent  crop,  about  200  to 
250  trees  per  acre.     After  the  last  course  of  thinning,  the  trees  are 
not  interfered  with  again  until  they  arrive  at  maturity.     When  the 
crop  comes  to  the  age  of  60  to  80  years,  it  is  sold  in  sections,  in  the 
growing  state,  and  the  ground  is  again  replanted  as  soon  as  it  is 
cleared  off  and  properly  prepared. 

447.  "  Hard- wood  plantations  are  treated  as  follows  :  As  soon  as 
the  nurses  are  interfering  with  the  hard-wood  trees,  their  thinning 
begins,  and  it  is  gradually  carried  on  till  they  are  all  removed,  by 
the  time  they  arrive  at  thirty  years  of  age,  with  the  exception  of 
such  as  are  left  for  ornament,  to  grow  to  maturity." 

448.  An  idea  of  the  relative  profit  of  trees  of  different  kinds  in 
Scotland,  we  give  the  following  list  of  prices  of  timber  per  cubic 
foot,  in  1882: 

Larch Is.  to  Is.  Id.  Oak  (standing)....  2s.  ta  3s. 

Scot's  fir  Qd.  to  9rf.  Ash Is.  3d.  to  Is.  Qd. 

Spruce ...  4d.  to  6rf.  Beech Wd.  to  Is. 

Silver  fir Qd.  to  lOrf.  Elm Is.  3d.  to  Is.  6d. 

In  1876,  fifteen  acres  of  Scotch  fir  timber,  80  years  old,  near 
Perth,  Scotland,  sold  for  £132  per  acre.  A  handsome  revenue  had 
been  previously  got  from  the  thinnings. 

CHAPTER  XL 

ORNAMENTAL    PLANTING. 

449.  Although  the  leading  object  of  this  book  is  to  convey  utili- 
tarian ideas  upon  the  subject  of  tree-planting,  and  to  indicate  the 
methods  and  opportunities  for  doing  this  with  most  profit  and  surest 
success,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  objects  are  not  in  the 
least  degree  inconsistent  with  a  due  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of 
woodland  scenery,  whether  presented  in  the  somber  shadows  of  a 
dense  forest,  the  cheerful  shade  of  a  grove,  or  in  the  grandeur  or 
grace  of  an  isolated  tree. 

8 


114  Ornamental  Planting. 

450.  In  fact,  there  is  nothing  that  will  so  effectually  promote  a 
taste  for  sylviculture,  and  a  familiarity  with  the  methods  of  For- 
estry, as  the  adornment  of  homesteads  and  villages  by  ornamental 
planting.     The  pleasures  to  be  derived  from  this  employment  have 
been  described  by  Addison,  in  the  simplicity  and  elegance  that  char- 
acterize his  style,  in  one  of  the  numbers1  of  the  Spectator: 

451.  "There  is,  indeed,  something  truly  magnificent  in  this  kind  of 
amusement.     It  gives  a  nobler  air  to  several  parts  of  nature  ;  it 
fills  the  earth  with  a  variety  of  beautiful  scenes,  and  has  something 
in  it  like  creation.     For  this  reason,  the  pleasure  of  one  who  plants 
is  something  like  that  of  a  poet,  who,  as  Aristotle  observes,  is  more 
delighted  with  his  productions  than  any  other  writer  or  artist  what- 
soever.    Plantations  have  one  advantage  in  them  which  is  not  to  be 
found  in  most  other  works,  as  they  give  a  pleasure  of  a  more  lasting 
date,  and  continually  improve  in  the  eye  of  the  planter.     When 
you  have  finished  a  building,  or  any  other  undertaking  of  the  like 
nature,  it  immediately  begins  to  decay  on  your  hands;  you  see  it 
brought  to  its  utmost  point  of  perfection,  and  from  that  time  hast- 
ening to  its  ruin.     On  the  contrary,  when  you  have  finished  your 
plantations,  they  are  still  arriving  at  greater  degrees  of  perfection, 
as  long  as  you  live,  and  appear  more  delightful  in  each  succeeding 
year  than  they  did  in  the  foregoing." 

452.  To  realize  how  much  the  imagery  of  the  poets  and  of  beauty 
in  landscape  painting  depends  upon  sylvan  scenery  and  rural  asso- 
ciations, we  need  but  imagine  how  blank  and  dreary  would  poetry 
and  painting  be  without  them.     Whatever  tends  to  cultivate  and 
extend  this  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  is  in  direct  ad- 
vancement of  Forestry.     In  this  the  taste  and  good  sense  of  one, 
may  become  an  example  for  another,  as  in  every  phase  of  life,  and 
in  every  pursuit  of  business  or  of  pleasure.     Mankind  are  largely 
influenced  by  the  example  of  others,  and  can  often  assign  no  better 
reason  for  this  imitation  than  that  it  is  the  practice  of  neighbors. 

453.  It  has  sometimes  been  a  custom  to  plant  a  tree  to  commem- 
orate an  event — the   birth   of  a  child ;   the  visit  of  an  illustrious 
guest ;  the  graduation  of  a  college  class,  and  other  occasions,  which 
give  a  lasting  interest  to  the  act.     It  occasionally  happens  that  some 
historical  incident  becomes  associated  with  a  tree,  as  the  Royal  Oak 

i  No.  583. 


Ornamental  Planting.  115 

that  once  sheltered  Charles  the  Second ;  the  Charter  Oak  at  Hart- 
ford, and  the  Treaty  Tree  at  Philadelphia,  which  were  monuments 
while  they  lasted,  and  were  cherished  as  relics  when  they  fell. 

454.  It  is  a  pleasant  thing  on  any  commemorative  occasion,  as 
the  centennial  of  a  town,  the  dedication  of  a  church,  or  the  founda- 
tion of  an  institution,  to  plant  a  tree  as  a  living  witness  of  the 
occasion.     It  should  be  of  some  long-living  and  large-growing  kind, 
to  the  end  that  it  may  for  a  long  period  bear  in  remembrance  the 
occasion  that  gave  it  a  place,  and  that  claims  for  it  a  protection. 

455.  In  considering  the  subject  of  ornamental  planting,  it  may 
be  presented  under  the  three  following  divisions,  viz. : 

(1.)  Home-adornment,  and  the  planting  of  private  grounds. 
(2.)  Village-improvement,  and  the  planting  of  the  wayside. 
(3.)  City  parks,  and  the  plantation  of  grounds  in  rural  cemeteries, 
and  around  public  institutions. 

(1.)  Home-adornment,  and  tJie  Planting  of  Private  Grounds. 

45G.  In  respect  to  this  class  of  ornament,  the  author  will  venture 
to  quote  from  a  paper  read  by  him  before  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence of  the  National  Educational  Association,  at  its  meeting 
held  in  New  York  city,  in  the  spring  of  1881,  as  presenting  thoughts 
concerning  the  motives  and  their  effect,  that  may  be  deemed  of  in- 
terest in  this  connection  : 

457.  "  The  man  who  has  cleared  a  farm  out  of  the  forest  seldom 
or  never  plants  a  tree.  He  has  come,  from  long  custom,  to  look 
upon  trees  as  an  iucumbrance  to  be  removed ;  and  whenever  his 
home  presents  a  noticeable  amount  of  sylvan  shade,  it  is  more  likely 
to  be  the  work  of  a  younger  generation,  who  have  no  sympathy 
with  his  aversion,  and  a  better  idea  of  the  comforts  of  home-life. 
Americans  have  been  reproached  for  having  but  slight  attachment 
tj  the  homes  of  their  childhood ;  and  this  willingness  to  sell  to  a 
stranger  the  laud  that  a  parent  has  cleared  and  cultivated,  and  on 
which  their  own  early  years  have  been  spent,  has  been  ascribed  to 
a  certain  instability  of  character,  and  an  uneasy  desire  for  change. 
There  is  doubtless  a  strong  affinity  between  a  love  of  home  and  of 
country,  and  it  is  true  that  an  attachment  to  a  homestead  because  of 
ancestral  possessions  and  family  associations,  would  greatly  tend  to 
increase  our  national  prosperity  and  happiness.  It  would  lead  to  sub- 
stantial investments  for  permanence  and  future  enjoyment,  that  the 


116  Ornamental  Planting. 

transient  and  speculative  owner  would  never  make,  and  it  would  tend 
to  the  more  solid  foundation  of  our  public  institutions  generally.  The 
man  who  settles  temporarily  for  business,  and  expects  to  depart  when 
he  becomes  rich,  spends  no  money  upon  public  libraries,  and  cares  noth- 
ing for  the  charitable  and  educational  establishments  of  the  place,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  burden  him  while  he  remains.  His  influence  will 
generally  be  adverse,  if  these  objects  require  expenses  that  bring  no 
return  during  his  stay,  and  he  will  prefer  temporary  expedients  to  per- 
manent investments,  if  they  but  serve  to  bridge  over  the  time  of  his 
sojourn.  The  solid  and  substantial  foundation  of  our  institutions  is 
laid  by  those  having  a  permanent  interest  in  the  prosperity  of  the 
places  where  they  are  located.  It  is  this  class  alone  that  erects 
monuments,  and  that  leaves  evidence  that  its  members  have  lived 
for  the  welfare  of  those  who  are  to  come  after  them.  It  is  a  point 
worthy  of  inquiry,  as  to  whether  much  of  this  indifference  to  the 
home  of  childhood  and  to  the  possessions  of  ancestors  with  which 
Americans  have  been  charged,  is  not  due  to  their  bleak  and  cheer- 
less surroundings.  We  can  not  doubt  that  the  influence  of  a  pleas- 
ant rural  homestead  and  the  choice  memories  of  refined  associations 
in  early  youth,  are  as  capable  of  making  as  strong  an  impression 
upon  our  native  population  as  in  any  country  whatever,  and  although 
in  the  absence  of  laws  of  entail,  and  under  the  impulse  of  adventure, 
or  motives  of  interest,  or  the  force  of  circumstances,  a  change  of 
ownership  may  often  happen,  and  the  choice  and  cherished  homestead 
become  the  property  of  a  stranger,  still  the  chances  become  less  as 
the  attractions  are  greater,  and  a  motive  worthy  of  earnest  and  hon- 
orable effort  is  presented,  in  favor  of  maintenance  in  the  family 
line." 

458.  In  the  choice  of  a  site  for  farm  buildings,  while  there  is  an 
obvious  convenience  in  having  them  near  a  highway,  there  are  ad- 
vantages to  be  considered  in  placing  them  more  or  less  in  the  interior, 
where  a  spring  of  water  or  perennial  stream  may  offer  conveniences 
that  money  could  not  carry  to  a  roadside  residence,  and  a  gentle 
swell  of  land  a  site  for  building  that  a  prince  might  envy.     The 
saving  of  labor  and  team-work,  in  cultivating  such  a  centralized 
farm,  should  not  be  overlooked. 

459.  A   neatly   painted   gpteway   should   distinguish   the   main 
entrance  from  others  opening  upon  the  highway,  and  if  the  farm  be 
of  size  to   warrant  the  steady  employment  of  a  laborer  with  his 


Ornamental  Planting.  117 

family,  English  taste  would  place  his  cottage  by  the  gate.     A  mass 
of  shrubbery  upon  each  side  of  the  entrance  gives  a  pleasing  effect. 

460.  A  good  road,  bordered  by  an  avenue  of  trees,  should  lead 
by  gentle  curves,  as  the  surface  required,  to  the  premises  of  the 
owner.     There  may  be  a  fence  or  not,  as  there  is  occasion,  but  a 
well  kept  hedge  is  better.     One  advantage  of  the  trees  would  be  to 
afford  a  guide  by  night,  as  well  as  shade  by  day.     They  should  be 
set  at  measured  intervals,  and  all  of  one  kind.     Such  an  avenue, 
when  fully  grown,  gives  a  stately  effect,  and  an  air  of  stability  and 
opulence  far  surpassing  that  of  an  irregular  one,  as  if  from  trees 
reserved  in  a  clearing ;  and  it  may  be  had  at  no  considerable  cost. 
If  an  intervening  grove  hides  the  dwelling  until  near  approach,  and 
then  presents  it  in  full  view,  the  effect  is  increased. 

461.  Large  trees  in  the  back-ground,  and  those  of  smaller  size 
and  of  less  common  kinds,  in   the  foreground,  produce  the  finest 
effect.     It  is  there  that  the  species  most  ornamental  from  their  blos- 
soms, their  fruit,  or  their  bright-colored  ornamental  foliage,  may  be 
used  with  greatest  advantage.     There  should  be  a  studied  effort  to 
imitate  nature  in  the  groupings  of  trees  and  shrubbery,  and  this  can 
not  be  done  by  placing  them  in  rows  or  in  symmetrical  order,  but  in 
clumps,  with  openings  here  and  there,  and  with  a  studied  avoidance 
of  the  formal  in  their  arrangement. 

462.  With  such  approaches  and  surroundings,  which  do  not  re- 
quire a  large  investment,  a  dwelling  of  itself  not  large  or  expensive, 
may  display  an  air  of  comfort,  and  even  of  opulence,  which  a  more 
costly  mansion  by  the  roadside,  unadorned  by  trees  and  shrubbery, 
could  never  be  made  to  present.     It  gives  to  the  observer  the  im- 
pression that  its  owner  has  not  only  means  but  taste,  and  is  a  strong 
indication  of  domestic  happiness  within. 

463.  The  opportunities  of  a  brook  for  supplying  a  fountain,  or 
feeding  a  fish-pond,  may  often    occur,  and    the    observing   owner 
may  secure  these  ornaments  at  a  moderate  expense.     His  fountain 
will  not  need  costly  castings  or  masonry — the  jets  may  issue  from 
piles  of  rustic  rock-work,  and  his  ponds  may  be  bordered  with  a  line 
of  rude  stones,  half  concealed  by  ferns  and  wild  flowers,  and  the 
bottom  covered  with  clean  white  sand. 

464.  But  in  case  the  buildings  are  already  near  the  highway,  and 
there  be  no  desire  to  change  them,  there  are  still  opportunities  for 
rural  adornment,  to  ample  extent.     The  roadside  may  be  bordered 


118  Ornamental  Planting. 

with  lines  of  trees  as  we  approach  from  either  way;  screens  of  ever- 
green may  be  planted  on  the  cold  side  or  the  warm  side,  as  there 
may  be  need  of  shelter  from  the  cold,  or  heat,  or  to  conceal  objects 
not  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  groups  of  shrubbery  may  be  planted  in 
clumps,  or  in  masses,  as  may  be  found  most  pleasing  and  natural. 
There  should,  upon  large  grounds,  be  a  suitable  variety,  but  if  the 
space  be  small,  it  is  not  wise  to  attempt  too  much.  A  single  phase 
of  beauty,  of  whatever  type  the  circumstances  most  favor,  is  sure 
to  be  pleasing ;  where,  if  too  many  objects  be  to  closely  crowded, 
the  effect  is  confused  and  lost. 

465.  Large  and  dense  evergreens  in  the  foreground  would  be  very 
likely  to  produce  a  gloomy  and  somber  impression  ;  they  will  be 
found  to  show  to  best  advantage,  rising  in  the  back-ground,  behind 
and  among  the  deciduous  kinds. 

466.  Trees  should  not  be  planted  too  near  a  dwelling.     Their 
shade  and  humidity  are  unfavorable  to  health,  if  in  excess,  and 
they  tend  to  cause  damp,  moldy  walls.     They  hinder  ventilation 
and  the  access  of  air  and  light,  so  conducive  to  health,  and  some- 
times breed  insects  that  prove  a  nuisance.     Their  roots  will  find 
their  way  into  the  walls  ;  and  trees  planted  near  a  building  become 
one-sided  and  deformed,  from  their  unequal  exposure  to  the  light. 

467.  There  is  always  something  to  conceal.    An  old  stump,  or 
broken  and  dead  tree,  may  possibly  be  still  made  beautiful  with 
the  Virginia  creeper  or  the  ivy.     Barns  and  out-buildings  may  be 
partly  hidden,  or  entirely  screened  from  notice  by  trees,  and  a  barn- 
yard may  be  made  comfortable  for  stock,  both  in  winter  and  sum- 
mer, by  dense  shelter-belts.     A  useless  pile  of  bowlders,  or  a  rock, 
may  be  covered  with  ferns  and  myrtle,  by  giving  their  roots  a  hold 
in  the  soil.    A  brook,  a  marshy  spot,  or  a  pond,  may  be  made  orna- 
mental, by  drooping  willows,  or  clumps  of  alders,  and  by  a  variety 
of  aquatic  shrubs  and  plants. 

468.  It  is  in  good  taste  to  separate  the  kitchen  garden  by  a  hedge, 
from  the  lawn  plantations,  and  it  is  generally  profitable  to  surround 
the  orchard  with  a  shelter  belt,  or  an  evergreen  screen.    Clumps  of 
thrifty  evergreens,  here  and  there  in  an  orchard,  are  of  great  ad- 
vantage. 

469.  The  Lombardy  poplar  forms  an  admirable  wind-break  ;  but 
in  ornamental  planting  it  shows  to  best  advantage  when  it  rises 
from  behind,  or  among  trees  with  rounded  tops — not  at  measured 


Ornamental  Planting.  119 

intervals,  but  here  and  there.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  ever- 
greens having  a  pyramidal  growth,  unless  they  are  purposely  in- 
tended as  a  screen  or  wind-break.  The  eye  will  tolerate  a  symmetry 
of  arrangement  where  there  is  an  obvious  object,  while  symmetry 
without  a  motive  may  fail  to  please. 

470.  In  planting  poplars  and  willows,  we  should  remember  that 
their  roots  have  a  great  liking  for  drains  and  wells,  and  will  some- 
times fill  them  if  too  near.     They  may  cause  leaks  in  aqueducts 
of  masonry,  and  the  roots  of  these  and  other  trees  may  heave  foun- 
dations and  displace  stone  walls,  if  planted  close  by  them,  in  a  deep 
mellow  soil.     These  qualities  become  of  the  greatest  value  in  con- 
solidating the  soil  of  eroding  streams,  and  upon  embankments,  the 
borders  of  irrigating  ditches,  and  upon  sands,  where  moisture  can 
be  reached  by  the  roots.    They  should  be  used  in  ornamental  plant- 
ing, where  they  can  be  placed  to  best  advantage,  but  should  gener- 
ally have  a  secondary  place. 

471.  In  the  immense  range  of  opportunity  which  our  country 
presents,  there  is  an  infinite  variety  of  conditions,  and  in  the  vast 
number  of  our  native  species,  and  of  exotic  kinds  that  prove  suit- 
able for  cultivation,  no  general  rules  could  be  followed  in  homestead 
planting.     If  the  general  idea  of  studying  the  pleasing  effects  in 
natural  grouping  be  observed,  and  proper  judgment  is  used  in  the 
selection  of  kinds  suited  to  the  soil  and  exposure,  the  result  will  be 
satisfactory. 

472.  It  may  be  added  that  such  a  homestead  is  worth  more  money 
than  one  wholly  unadorned.     This  is  indeed  a  low  motive,  as  com- 
pared with  the  more  refined  and  honorable  aims  of  life ;  but  if  we 
can  secure  the  enjoyment  that  these  improvements  afford,  and  at 
the  same  time  enhance  the  value  of  the  estate,  let  us  by  no  means 
iniss  the  opportunity. 

(2.)    Village-improvement,  and  the  Planting  of  Way-sides. 

473.  Nothing  gives  a  more  inviting  appearance  to  a  village  street, 
or  a  country  road,  than  well  kept  avenues  of  trees.     To  secure  the 
best  effect,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  following  rules : 

(a.)  In  a  village  or  city,  the  planting  and  care  should  be  under 
one  direction,  although  the  expense  may  be  chargeable  to  the  prop- 
erty adjacent.  This  may  be  some  officer  designated  by  law,  or  a 


120  Ornamental  Planting. 

committee  of  citizens  whose  authority  is  recognized  by  general  con- 
sent. 

(6.)  Upon  a  given  street,  the  trees  should  be  all  of  one  kind. 
The  different  streets  may  be  planted  with  different  kinds,  and  a 
pleasing  diversity  thus  secured. 

(c.)  The  lines  of  trees  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet,  and  in 
wi'ie  streets  not  less  than  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  outer  line.  In 
wry  wide  and  quiet  streets,  not  thoroughfares,  a  charming  effect  is 
secured,  by  having  a  line  of  trees  in  the  middle,  with  carriage-ways 
on  each  side,  and  at  proper  crossings. 

(d)  The  trees  should  be  protected  by  proper  guards  while  young, 
and  generally  by  a  railing  on  the  side  towards  the  middle  of  the 
road  when  they  have  grown  to  a  large  size. 

(e.~)  They  should  be  protected  by  well-enforced  ordinances,  and 
by  public  sentiment,  from  being  used  as  hitching-posts  for  horses. 
To  prevent  the  necessity,  such  posts  should  be  provided,  far  enough 
away  to  be  free  from  danger  to  the  trees ;  it  may  still  be  within 
their  shade. 

(/.)  For  immediate  effect,  as  well  as  ultimate  advantage  to  the 
plantation,  the  trees  first  set  may  be  at  half  the  distance  apart  that 
is  intended  for  the  full-grown  trees ;  and  the  alternate  ones  may  be 
of  some  quickly  growing  kind,  that  should  be  taken  out  as  they 
crowd  the  more  valuable  kinds  which  are  to  remain.  These  tem- 
porary trees  will  tend  to  render  the  growth  of  those  between  them 
higher,  and  will  leave  less  trimming  necessary  afterwards.  The 
cottonwoods,  soft-maples,  poplars,  and  willows  afford  convenient 
trees  for  such  uses. 

((/.)  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  soil  be  kept  mellow  around 
the  roots,  and  that  they  be  watered  while  young  in  times  of  great 
drouth. 

474.  In  streets  much  traveled,  a  grating  placed  in  the  pavement, 
and  extending  a  yard  or  so  on  every  side,  would  be  useful.  In  Eu- 
rope, iroli  gratings  of  ornamental  design  are  placed  around  the 
trees,  but  not  in  contact  with  them.  They  are  on  a  level  with  the 
pavement,  and  so  placed  as  not  to  obstruct  travel.  Through  these 
gratings  the  air  circulates  freely,  and  the  roots  are  fully  exposed  to 
the  rains.  They  may  be  watered  and  fertilized  in  case  of  need,  and 
the  s^il  mellowed  by  spading  from  time  to  time.  We  here  present 
the  sketch  of  a  grating  suitable  for  such  a  purpose.  It  may  be  made 


Ornamental  Planting. 


121 


68.  Screen  for  placing  over  Roots  of 
Trees  in  Pavements. 


highly  ornamental,  and  a  monogram,  a  trade-mark,  a  sign,  or  any 
other  device  may  be  introduced, 
that  fancy  might  suggest.  In  front 
of  premises  owned  by  a  city  or  a 
state,  the  crest  of  the  official  arms 
would  be  very  proper.  The  part 
with  radiating  bars,  in  this  sketch, 
might  be  of  several  sizes,  to  be 
changed  as  the  tree  became  large, 
and  the  grating  might  be  sup- 
ported by  wrought-iron  bars,  as 
represented  by  dotted  lines.  The 
inner  disc  should  be  cast  in  two  sections,  and  the  outer  one  in 
two  or  more.  In  our  figure  we  have  shown  three  divisions.  They 
should  be  securely  fastened  down,  and  would  be  very  durable. 
They  might  be  circular,  oval,  or  in  any  other  form,  and  being  flush 
with  the  pavements,  tl.ey  would  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  their 
use.  The  edge  nearest  the  tree  should  have  a  flange  turned  up,  so 
as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bark  by  sliding  objects. 

475.  With  respect  to  the  kinds  of  trees  most  suitable  for  streets 
and  roadsides,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  rule.     There  are  some,  like 
the  horse  chestnut,  the  catalpas,  and  the  conifers  generally,  that  ap- 
pear to  better  advantage  alone  or  in  groups,  upon  a  lawn  or  in  a 
park,  while  others,  like  the  elms,  box-elder,  maples,  locusts,  poplars, 
lindens,  and  many  of  the  oaks  show  to  fine  advantage  in  avenues. 

476.  In  Germany,  we  see  many  miles  of  continuous  lines  of  ap- 
ple trees  by  the  roadside,  and  in  the  absence  offences  marking  their 
direction  for  great  distances  across  the  country.     In  France,  it  is 
common  to  find  the  Lombardy  poplar  thus  planted  ;  and  in  Italy, 
the  mulberry  and  the  olive,  often   supporting   festoons  of  grape- 
vines, and  in  their  season  loaded  with  fruit. 

477.  In  planting  the  roadsides  in  a  prairie,  a  rod  or  so  of  land  should 
be  thoroughly  broken  up  and  cultivated  along  the  line,  before  the 
trees  are  set,  and  some  hoed  crop  may  be  cultivated  to  advantage 
between  and  around  them  till  they  get  well  set. 

478.  In  planting  screens  of  evergreen  to  prevent  snowdrifts  in 
exposed  places,  the  trees  should  be  set  in  several  oblique  rows,  as  in 
the  quincunx  order  [§  181],  and  should  be  protected,  if  need  be,  by 
a  fence,  until  able  to  protect  themselves. 


122  Ornamental  Planting. 

479.  In  planting  avenues  of  trees,  it  is  best  to  have  the  holes  all 
dug  before  the  young   trees  are  brought  upon  the  ground.     The 
holes  should  be  deeper  than  the  tree  is  to  set,  and  wide  enough  to 
allow  the  roots  to  be  well  spread.    Some  fresh  soft,  mellow,  and  fer- 
tile soil  should  be  thrown  upon  the  bottom,  before  the  trees  are 
placed,  so  as  to  bring  up  the  tree  nearly  to  the  level  at  which  it 
formerly  stood. 

480.  Observations  have  been  made  to  ascertain  whether  a  tree 
does  better  when  set  in  the  same  position  with  respect  to  points  of 
compass  that  it  stood  in  before  planting,  the  conclusion  being  that 
there  was  no  perceptible  difference. 

481.  After  spreading  the  roots,  sprinkle  over  them  first  the  richer 
soil  from  the  surface,  so  that  it  shall  settle  closely  in  among  them, 
leaving  no  void  places.    Then  fill  in  the  holes,  putting  the  soil  from 
the  deepest  part  on  top.     In  prairie  planting,  and  especially  in  dry 
regions,  there  is  no  danger  in  pressing  down  the  soil  firmly  over  the 
roots.     In  a  strong  clay  soil,  this  practice  would  be  injurious. 

482.  The  young  fibers  of  the  roots  require  moisture  at  once.     In 
a  moderately  damp  soil,  they  can  find  it,  but  in  a  dry  soil  they 
should  be  well  wet  as  soon  as  planted,  and  in  a  dry  season  after- 
wards until  the  plants  are  well  rooted. 

483.  The  most  effectual  security  against  injury  from  drouth  is  in 
mulching;  and  for  this,  decayed  chips,  hay,  grass,  straw,  or  dead 
leaves   may   be   used.     This   practice   will   sometimes   double   the 
growth  in  a  single  year,  and  save  the  life  of  a  young  tree  in  dry 
seasons. 

484.  Before  leaving  the  subject  of  planting  in  villages,  we  should 
not  omit  to  notice  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  Village  Improve- 
ment Associations,  in  the  cultivation  of  a  taste  for  rural  ornament, 
and  the  development  of  town  pride  and  public  spirit.      In  many 
villages  in  New  England  and  elsewhere,  such  associations  have  been 
formed,  and  from  the  concert  of  action  and  unity  of  purpose  that 
they  secure,  they  have  done  much  to  adorn  and  beautify  their  locali- 
ties, thus  rendering  them  more  agreeable  to  their  citizens  and  more 
inviting  to  the  transient  visitor,  and  to  those  who  may  be  seeking  a 
pleasant  rural  residence. 

485.  To  give  these  associations  permanence  and  regularity,  they 
should  have  the  form  of  a  regular  Society,  with  a  Constitution,  By- 
laws, and  rules  of  membership,  and  their  object  may  extend  beyond 


Ornamental  Planting.  123 

the  simple  ornamenting  of  streets  by  planting  and  paving,  to  their 
grading  and  drainage,  the  maintenance  of  grass  plats  and  flower- 
beds upon  public  squares,  the  providing  of  fountains  and  drinking 
troughs,  the  clearing  off  of  snows  in  winter,  lighting  of  streets  at 
night,  and  other  subjects  of  like  character. 

486.  Extending  beyond  the  material,  they  may  wisely  include 
the  intellectual  welfare  of  their  localities,  by  the   formation   and 
maintenance  of  a  public  library  and  reading-room,  courses  of  public 
lectures,  local  museums,  and,  in  short,  whatever  tends  to  elevate 
and  refine  the  taste,  or  to  promote  the  enjoyment  of  the  citizens  by 
uniting  them  in  common  interests,  wherein  each  one  contributes  his 
share,  and  from  which  he  derives  pleasure. 

487.  An  attractive  plantation  of  streets  and  squares  in  one  village, 
becomes  an  object  for  imitation  in  another,  and  by  friendly  emula- 
tion, each  may  tend  to  stimulate  the  efforts  of  the  other  in  securing 
a  beautiful  effect. 

488.  Where  the  children  in  the  public  schools,  and  students  in 
academies  can  be  interested  in  these  improvements,  the  impressions 
formed  may  be  permanent,  and  will  find  application  in  after  life  in 
diffusing  a  correct  taste  for  rural  adornment  in  places  far  remote, 
while  the  memory  will  travel  back  to  these  scenes  of  quiet  beauty, 
and  rest  with  satisfaction  upon  the  incidents  that  they  recall.1 

(3.)   City  Parks,  and  the  Plantation  of  grounds  in  Rural  Cemeteries, 
and  around  Public  Institutions. 

489.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the  advantages  of  providing 
places  of  public  resort,  under  official  management,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  our  cities  and  large  towns  have  been  recognized,  or  the  op- 

irThe  form  of  a  charter  of  a  "  Village  Improvement  Association,"  by 
George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  is  given  in  Scribner's  monthly  for  May,  1877,  and 
the  subject  is  further  noticed  in  our  Forestry  Keport  for  1877,  page  217. 
The  Hon.  B.  G.  Northrup,  Mr.  N.  H.  Egleston  and  others,  have  done  much 
to  piomote  these  objects,  and  their  writings  may  be  consulted  with  great 
advantage. 

T'je  city  of  Tuscaloosa,  Alabama,  is  sometimes  called  the  "Druid  City," 
from  the  oaks  planted  some  forty-five  years  ago,  at  the  instance  of  Mr. 
Thomas  Maxwell.  The  city  of  Cleveland  is  called  the  "Forest  Cify"  through 
the  plantations  induced  by  the  late  Leonard  Case,  and  other  property 
owners.  New  Haven  is  called  the  ':  City  of  Elms,"  and  well  deserves  its 
name. 


124  Ornamental  Planting. 

portunities  afforded  by  wild  and  rocky  suburb,  or  of  waste  and  vacant 
grounds  for  rural  adornment,  have  been  improved.  In  other  cases 
there  are  still  barren  wastes,  river  banks,  shores,  islands  and  points 
of  land,  within  or  near  a  city,  and  sometimes  belonging  to  the  cor- 
poration, that  have  not  yet  been  noticed,  where,  at  a  moderate  ex- 
pense, there  might  be  secured  a  little  paradise  of  beauty,  and  an 
inviting  place  of  resort. 

490.  In  laying  out  city  parks,  the  leading  idea  should  be  to  make 
them  easily  accessible,  and  as  widely  useful  as  possible. 

491.  They  need  not,  therefore,  embrace  ivide  areas,  unless  there  be 
convenient  bodies  of  land  available,  but  they  should  be  as  long  as 
may  be.     They  may  sometimes  consist  of  separate  pieces  connected 
by  broad,  well-planted  boulevards  or  avenues.     It  is  an  excellent 
plan,  where  the  space  is  ample,  to  lay  out  the  boundary-street,  at 
one  or  two  hundred  feet  distance,  within  the  actual  line  of  owner- 
ship, at  the  beginning,  and  to  sell  or  lease  this  strip  of  land  outside, 
upon  condition  that  dwellings  shall  be  built  and  maintained  upon 
plans  prescribed  or  approved  by  the  commissioner  in  charge,  and 
that  their  future  use  for  purposes  injurious  to  the  general  objects  of 
the  park  be  forbidden  in  their  title  deeds  or  leases. 

492.  In  some   instances,  vacant  grounds  near  cities  have  been 
highly  improved  with  plantations,  fountains,  lakes,  and  other  objects 
of  rural  interest,  upon  private  account;  and  the  adjacent  and  inter- 
vening lands  sold  upon  conditions  tending  to  maintenance  and  to  great 
profit  upon  the  investment.     Where  persons  of  congenial  tastes,  and 
united  by  a  common  sympathy  in  social,  educational,  religious,  or 
other  matters,  can  establish  suburban  colonies  of  this  kind  near  our 
large  cities,  they  may  multiply  the  enjoyments  of  life  indefinitely, 
and  by  carefully  arranging  a  plan  of  organization  in  the  beginning, 
they  may  secure  the  maintenance  of  their  object,  by  the  exclusion  of 
any  thing  that  might  interfere  with  its  operation.    Even  as  a  simple 
speculation,  such  enterprises  have  an  admirable  effect,  and  in  some 
instances  present  an  inviting  field  for  investment. 

493.  The  traveler  in  Europe  will  often  find  the  line  of  fortifications 
of  a  former  period  now  converted,  or  in  process  of  transformation, 
into  a  line  of  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds,  the  moat  affording 
ready-made  a  meandering  lake,  and  the  slopes  and  ramparts  still 
left  presenting  that  diversity  of  surface  most  desirable  for  ornamental 
plantation.     Upon  certain  of  these  points  admirable  sites  are  found 


Ornamental  Planting.  125 

for  the  erection  of  statues  and  monuments  where  they  will  appear 
to  best  advantage.  The  cities  of  Copenhagen  and  of  Leipzig  may 
be  mentioned  as  examples,  while  the  "  Ring-Balm"  of  Vienna,  one 
of  the  finest  streets  of  Europe,  owes  its  beauty  to  the  line  of  pub- 
lic and  private  buildings  which  have  been  built  upon  the  line  of 
its  former  defenses. 

494.  It  occasionally  happens  that  certain  points  in  these  meander- 
ing gardens  have  a  local  history  of  thrilling  interest,  as  being  places 
of  successful  attack,  or  of  heroic  defense,  or  as  the  point  where  the 
fate  of  a  battle  was  decided,  or  the  fortunes  of  a  commander  made 
or  lost. 

495.  In  a  city  park,  a  native  woodland  can  often  be  improved  to 
great  advantage,  and  artificial  plantations  are  most  successful  where 
they  truly  represent  the  features  of  a  native  forest.     In  the  plant- 
ing of  trees  in  parks,  with  the  exception  of  avenues  of  approach  or 
connection,  there  should  be  a  studied  diversity  in   location,  and  a 
great  variety  in  the  species. 

496.  There   should    also    be — what   is   not  often    seen — at  least 
some  portion  specially  planted  as  an  arboretum,  embracing  in  groups, 
by  natural  families,  as  great  a  number  of  species  of  each  genius  as 
can  be  made  to  grow,  each  being  labeled  with  its  scientific  and  common 
name. 

497.  In  planting  small  parks  upon  college  grounds,  or  in  the  midst 
of  great  thoroughfares,  we  must  remember  that  persons  upon  busi- 
ness always  hasten  to  their  object  in  direct  lines.     They  are  impatient 
at  curves  and  winding  ways,  and  will  strike  straight  across  a  plat 
of  ground  or  a  corner,  unless  absolutely  prevented  by  a  barrier. 

498.  It  is  therefore  unwise  to  contend  against  this  fact,  in  the 
arrangement  of  walks  in  such  places,  and  it  is  better  to  lay  out  a 
few  straight  paths  in  the  lines  of  most  travel,  at  the  sacrifice  of  what 
might  be  thought  a  principle  in  taste,  or  a  rule  in  landscape  garden- 
ing.    Such  walks  may  still   be  made  attractive   by  flowers   and 
shrubbery  along  their  borders,  and  comfortable  by  the  shade  of 
trees. 

499.  If  the  space  allows,  there  should  generally  be  provided  in 
these  small  parks  such  winding  paths  as  the  surface  and  the  circum- 
stances favor.     They  will  be  used  only  in  moments  of  leisure,  and 
by  persons  seeking  quiet  and  rest. 

500.  If  there  be  summer-houses,  grottoes,  fountains,  monuments, 


126  Ornamental  Planting. 

or  objects  of  historical  interest,  that  attract  attention,  or  invite  to 
repose,  they  should  be  placed  near  these  winding  and  less  frequented 
paths,  rather  than  along  the  great  thoroughfares  of  a  park,  and 
along  these  chiefly  should  seats  be  placed. 

501.  It  is  the  custom,  however,  in  Europe,  to  place  monuments 
or  other  structures  intended  to  inspire  patriotic  sentiment,  or  remind 
the  passer-by  of  a  religious  duty,  in  the  most  conspicuous  parts  of  pub- 
lic grounds,  and  often  in  the  midst  of  the  most  frequented  thorough- 
fares.    The  little  areas  formed  by  intersecting  city  avenues  present 
the  best  opportunities  for  costly  monuments  and  fountains,  as  they 
may  be  seen  to  a  distance  from  several  directions.     If  possible  they 
should  be  inclosed,  with  a  grass-plat  or  beds  of  flowers  around  them, 
but  no  shrubbery  or  trees  that  would  conceal  any  part. 

502.  In  squares  reserved  for  military  parade,  the  area  must  nec- 
essarily be  left  open,  and  planting  can  be  done  only  around  the 
borders.     There  may  often  be  laid  out  an  avenue  for  promenade, 
shaded  by  a  single  or  double  row  of  trees,  and  at  the  entrance  there 
should  be  beds  of  flowers  or  colored-leaved  plants,  as  the  opportuni- 
ties offer. 

503.  Upon  the  grounds  belonging  to  universities,  colleges,  and 
academies,  we  insist  upon  the  labeling  of  trees,  as  above  mentioned, 
as  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  education,  by  familiarizing 
the  student  and  the  visitor  with  these  names,  and  of  enabling  them 
to  form  true  ideas  concerning  the  resemblances  and  differences  in 
the  form,  foliage,  and  other  characteristics  of  forest  trees. 

504.  The  best  labels  are  tablets  of  porcelain,  or  of  white  earthen- 
ware, with  the  names  in  black  enameled  lettering.     The  cheapest 
are  strips  or  plates  of  zinc,  with  the  writing  in  a  corrosive  ink,  that 
leaves  indelible  black  lines.     Neither  of  these  will  suffer  from  the 
weather,  and  both  will  last  for  an  almost  indefinite  time. 

505.  In  rural  cemeteries,  there  is  great  opportunity  for  effect  in 
the  plantation  of  avenues  of  approach,  and  of  masses  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers  around  the  entrance,  and  in  the  circles  and  plats  formed 
by  intersecting  avenues.     There  should  be,  if  possible,  a  belt  of 
woodland,  or  its  equivalent  in  a  screen,  that  shall  isolate  it  as  far  as 
convenient  from  the  busy  world,  and  impart  that  aspect  of  separa- 
tion and  quiet,  consistent  with  the  general  object  of  the  place. 

506.  Custom  has  given  to  the  "  funereal  cypress,"  and  to  other 
evergreens,  a  prominence  in  cemeteries,  and  there  is  a  certain  fitness 


Ornamental  Planting :  Hedges  and  Screens.          127 

in  their  use  ;  but  they  should  not  exclude  the  proper  introduction 
of  the  deciduous  kinds.  In  this  we  should,  above  all,  avoid  the 
planting  of  those  that  have  tracing  roots,  as  they  are  continually 
liable  to  send  up  shoots,  and,  if  neglected,  to  overrun  the  premises, 
or  at  best  occasion  constant  care  in  their  suppression. 

507.  The  planting  and  removal  of  trees  in  a  cemetery  should  be 
wholly  under  the  control  of  a  superintendent  or  a  board,  and  by  this 
means  alone  can  harmony  of  arrangement  and  an  agreeable  effect 
be  secured. 

503.  Upon  the  grounds  of  public  institutions  generally,  and  in 
all  forms  of  ornamental  planting,  there  is  an  additional  interest  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  exotic  and  unusual  species,  provided  always 
that  they  prove  hardy  and  reliable.  In  this,  the  forest  flora  of 
Eastern  Asia  and  Japan,  from  its  general  resemblance,  yet  specific 
differences,  and  the  forests  of  the  Himalaya  region,  have  furnished 
many  species  that  deserve  to  be  widely  planted,  and  more  generally 
known.  It  is  not  improbable  that  by  this  wider  diffusion,  some 
species  will  be  noticed  that  show  an  unexpected  vigor  and  success 
in  growth  that  may  entitle  them  to  notice  for  planting  as  timber 
trees. 

509.  The  English  elm  (Ulmns  campeztris)  appears  to  be  a  better 
tree  for  cities  and  smoky  villages  than  our  native  elms.  It  will 
grow  on  dryer  ground  and  endure  a  greater  degree  of  drouth. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

HEDGES,    SCREENS,    AND    SHELTER-BELTS. 

Hedges  and  Screens. 

510.  A  hedge  is  a  living  fence,  generally  planted  with  some  thorny 
tree  or  shrub,  and  strong  enough  to  prevent  the  passing  of  domestic 
animals.     A  screen  is  more  frequently  a  closely  planted  wall  of  ver- 
dure, generally  of  some  evergreen  tree,  intended  to  conceal  some 
unsightly  object,  or  to  afford  shelter  from  the  winds  and  protection 
to   gardens,  nurseries,  orchards,  stock-yards,    or  buildings.     They 
may  both  be  classed  among  ornamental  plantations,  and  either  of 
them  may  perform  the  offices  of  both. 

511.  In  no  line  cf  planting  will  there  be  found  so  great  a  variety 
of  opinions  with  regard  to  the  kinds  that  should  be  planted,  and  as 


128  Hedges  and  Screens. 

to  the  time  and  manner  of  planting,  and  after-treatment,  as  we  find 
with  respect  to  hedges.  Perhaps  every  one  of  those  that  have  been 
confidently  recommended  might  be  entitled  to  preference  in  some 
particular  localities,  and  it  is  certain  that  none  have  a  general  adapt- 
ation to  all  parts  of  the  country. 

51£.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  well  consider  the  conditions  of  a 
given  locality,  as  to  its  soil  and  climate,  before  making  considerable 
investments  in  any  one  kind,  until  its  fitness  has  been  proved.  In 
doubtful  cases,  and  in  a  new-settled  region,  it  would  be  well  to  ex- 
periment in  a  small  way  with  several  kinds,  and  if  they  fail,  the 
loss  will  not  be  much ;  while  if  they  succeed,  the  result  may  lead 
to  a  wide-spread  benefit. 

513.  We  will  first  present  a  list  of  the  species  that  have  been 
successfully  used  for  hedges  and  screens,  and  afterwards  state  some 
of  the  principles  that  apply  in  their  planting  and  management : 

Coniferous  evergreens :  Chiefly  the  spruces,  cedars,  and  junipers, 
viz. : 

Norway  spruce  (Picea  exceJsa). 

Black  and  white  spruces  (P.  nigra  and  P.  alba). 

Hemlock  (Tsuga  Canadensis). 

White  cedar  (Thuja  occidentalis) . 

Chinese  cedar  (Thuja  orientalis). 

California  white  cedar  (Libocedrm  decurrens). 

Red  cedar  (Juniperus  Vlrginiana). 

Common  juniper  (Juniperus  communis). 

514.  These  are  chiefly  useful  for  screens,  and  should  all  of  them 
be  started  in  nurseries.     They  should  be  set  in  spring,  upon  ground 
previously  well  prepared,  and  with  the  slightest  possible  exposure  of 
the  roots  to  the  air,  and  they  should  be  well  watered.     In  a  dry 
climate,  they  should  have  some  protection  on  the  south  side,  and  it 
might  be  well  to  provide  a  shelter  by  planting  some  quick-growing 
trees  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  proposed  screen,  two  or  three  years 
previous,  to  be  taken  away  when  no  longer  needed. 

515.  An  evergreen  screen  can  be  best  made  to  thicken  up  by  pinch- 
ing or  clipping  off  the  ends  of  the  branches.     The  terminal  shoots 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  the  height  of  the  proposed  screen  with- 
out disturbance,  and  then  it  may  be  checked.      For  an  effectual 
screen  there  should  be  two  parallel  rows  of  trees,  in  which  case  most 
of  the  branches  will  strike  out,  on  each  side,  towards  the  light. 


Hedges  and  Screens.  129 

They  may  be  set  from  one  to  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  and  those 
in  one  row  opposite  the  spares  in  the  other,  as  follows  : 
*         *         *         *         *         *         *         * 


516.  In  a  cool,  humid  climate,  the  hemlock  makes    a  beautiful 
hedge.     It  can  often  be  transplanted  from  the  woods,  and  it  should 
be  set  in  double  rows,  to  produce  the  finest  effect. 

517.  For  the  dryer  climate  of  Iowa  and  the  region  west  of  the 
Missouri,  the  native  red  cedar  is  preferable  to  all  others,  and  about 
the  only  kind  of  evergreen  that  can  be  grown  for  a  hedge  with  much 
certainty. 

518.  For  the  Southern  States,  some  species  not  coniferous,  such  as 
the  tamarisk  (Tamarix),  the  Spanish  bayonet  (Yucca  aloeifolia),  the 
Cherokee  rose  (Rosa  Icevigata),  various  species  of  the  cactus,  and  other 
plants  may  be  employed  to  great  advantage.     The  native  thorny 
and  ornamental  shrubbery  of  that  region  affords  many  evergreens 
not  conifers  that  would  be  available  for  this  use,  and  it  would  be 
advisable  to  select  such  as  are  best  known  to  be  suitable  for  the  soil 
and  conditions,  and  that  are  proved  to  be  hardy. 

519.  For  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  the  following  (chiefly 
deciduous)  have  been  found  successful  in  various  localities  : 

Buckthorn  (Rhammts  cathadicus). 

Crab-apple  (Pyrus  cormaria). 

English  Hawthorn  (Cratcegus  oxycanthus). 

Native  thorny  trees  (Cratcegus,  various  species). 

Privet  (Ligustrum  vulgare). 

Honey  -locust  (Gleditschia  tricanthos.) 

Holly  (Ilex  opaca). 

Osage  orange  (Madura  aurantiaca). 

520.  For  the  more  northerly  parts  of  the  North-western  States, 
the  white  or  gray  willow  has  been  used  with  great  success.    For  the 
more  arid  regions  further  west,  the  mesquit  (Algorobis  glandulnsa)  , 
the  buffalo  berry  (Sh.epherdia  eleagnvides),  and  the  Came/ana  may  be 
tried  with  advantage. 

521.  Of  all  these,  where  the  climate  will  permit,  the  osage  orange, 
a  native  of  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  the  Indian  Territory, 
has  the  most  decided  preference,  and  the  methods  of  its  planting  and 
management  are  as  follows  : 

522.  The  seeds  should  be  procured  fresh  from  their  native  locali- 


130  Hedges  and  Screens. 

ties,  where  their  preparation  for  market  now  forms  a  regular  business. 
The  fruit  is  collected  and  rotted,  and  the  seeds  washed  out  and  dried. 
They  should  not  be  dark-colored,  nor  moldy,  but  bright,  and  will 
weigh  about  35  pounds  to  the  bushel.  They  are  best  if  grown 
the  year  previous,  and  should  not  be  more  than  two  years  old. 

523.  It  is  usually  better  to  obtain  the  plants  from  those  who  make 
a  business  of  raising  them  for  the  market.     They  are  started  from 
the  seed  by  first  pouring  on  very  warm,  and  almost  scalding  hot 
water,  draining  off  the  surplus,  covering,  and  allowing  them  to  lie 
(being  frequently  stirred)  till  they  are  swollen  and  ready  to  sprout. 
They  are  then  at  once  planted  by  hand,  or  by  machine,  in  rows 
about  18  to  24  inches  apart,  and  cultivated  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 
Late  in  the  fall  they  should  be  mowed  down,  and  the  roots,  after 
being  loosened  up  by  plowing,  should  be  picked  out,  assorted,  tied 
into  bunches,  and  buried  in  dry  trenches  or  kept  in  a  cellar  till 
spring. 

524.  Having  previously  prepared  the  ground  along  the  line  of  the 
hedge,  by  thorough  plowing  and  cultivation,  mark  the  lines  with  a 
cord,  and  set  the  plants  with  a  spade,  dibble,  or  trowel,  about  two 
inches  deeper  than  they  grew  before,  and  in  rows  from  8  to  12  or  15 
inches  apart,  the  richer  soil  requiring  a  wider  distance  between. 

525.  For  a  strong  hedge,  it  is  sometimes  W7ell  to  set  two  rows,  as 
already  described.     These  rows  may  be  from  6  to  9  inches  apart. 

526.  To  secure  an  effectual  hedge,  two  methods  are  employed. 
The  first  and  best  one  is  to  obtain  a  broad  and  dense  base,  by  cut- 
ting back,  but  allowing  the  plants  to  stand  upright;  in  the  other, 
they  are  allowed  to  grow  high  at  first,  but  are  then  bent  down,  in- 
terwoven and  confined  in  a  sloping  or  horizontal  position. 

527.  It  is  not  usual  to  prepare  a  bank  and  ditch,  as  is  prescribed 
in  many  English  books  upon  hedge-making,  but  across  wet  grounds, 
it  would  be  advisable  to  do  so. 

528.  The  care  required  the  first  year,  is  to  keep  the  ground  mel- 
low and  free  of  weeds,  and  in  very  dry  times  it  may  be  advisable 
to  protect  the  plants  by  mulching.     If  the  object  be  to  secure  a 
dense  upright  growth,  the  plants  should  be  mowed  off  close,  in  the 
spring  of  the  second  year,  vacant  places  should  be  filled  up,  and 
the   cultivation   continued.      In   mid-summer,    the   upright   stems 
should  be  cut  back  to  within  four  or  five  inches  of  the  ground,  leav- 
ing those  that  spread  out  laterally,     If  the  growth  is  still  vigorous 


Hedges  and  Screens.  131 

they  may  be  again  cut  back  at  the  top,  but  not  so  low  as  before. 
lu  the  third  year,  the  cutting  back  at  the  top  is  renewed,  but  higher 
up,  and  under  favorable  conditions  the  hedge  is  now  broad  and 
very  dense  near  the  ground.  The  subsequent  care  consists  in  keep- 
ing the  hedge  trimmed  to  a  convex  curve  on  each  side,  and  if  the 
roots  appear  to  spread  too  far,  they  may  be  kept  back  by  cutting 
them  off  with  a  sharp  coulter  attached  to  the  beam  of  a  plow,  and 
drawn  along  on  each  side,  as  near  as  a  team  can  be  driven. 

529.  There  are  quite  a  number  of  patents  issued  for  bending 
down,  interweaving  with  wires,  confining  by  hooks  and  by  stakes, 
and  the  like,  which  can  not  be  easily  described  without  a  greater 
space  than  the  limits  of  this  article  allow.     In  some  of  these,  the 
stems  are  partly  cut  off,  and  then  bent  down  and  confined.    In  some, 
the  branches  are  interwoven  in  lattice  form.     The  most  convenient 
tool  for  handling  the  plants  (which  are  covered  with  cruel  thorns), 
has  a  strong  iron  head,  consisting  of  two  prongs,  like  the  tines  of  a 
fork,  one  of  which  is  straight,  and  the  other  recurved,  and  firmly 
fixed  in  a  long  handle.    This  instrument  can  be  used  both  for  push- 
ing and  pulling,  and  by  its  aid,  two  men,  one  upon  each  side,  can 
bring  the  stems  into  place  without  difficulty. 

530.  All  hedges  have  the  disadvantage  of  impoverishing  the  soil 
adjacent,  to  a  perceptable  degree;  and  the  honey  locust,  the  poplars, 
and  the  willows,  have  a  tendency  to  send  out  tracing  roots  into  the 
adjacent  plowed  lauds,  and  there  sprout  where  they  are  not  wanted. 
The  osage  orange  does  not  generally  show  this  tendency,  and  this 
fact  has  been  mentioned  as  a  motive  in  its  favor.     It  has,  however, 
a  somewhat  tender  habit,   and  when  planted  beyond  its   proper 
limits,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  killed  back  or  killed  altogether  by  a  cold 
winter. 

531.  Its   northern   limit   can   not   be  described  with  certainty. 
Being  a  native  of  a  mild  climate,  it  is  not  readily  grown  in  a  cold 
one,  and  perhaps  it  would  be  safer  not  to  depend  upon  it  in  Iowa,  or 
further  west  in  the  same  latitude.     As  the  young  shoots  do  not 
ripen  well,  they  are  apt  to  be  killed  every  year  by  the  frost,  and 
they  can  hardly  long  survive  these  repeated  injuries. 

532.  Among  the  enemies  that  a  young  hedge  of  osage  orange  is 
exposed  to,  in  the  more  Western  States,  is  the  gopher,  a  burrowing 
rodent,  that  will  follow  a  line  of  hedge  many  rods,  and  destroy  the 
roots.     They  may  be  killed  off  by  poisoning.     A  fire,  if  allowed  to 


132  Hedges  and  Screens :  Shelter-Belts. 

get  in  among  the  dry  materials  that  lodge  in  a  hedge,  will  be  sure  to 
kill  it,  and  the  strictest  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  this  accident. 

533.  In  very  poor  soil,  a  trench  may  be  dug  along  the  line  of  an 
intended  hedge,  and  filled  in  with  the  more  fertile  soil  of  the  adja- 
cent surface,  or  elsewhere.     It  should  be  heaped  above  the  former 
level,  to  allow  for  settling. 

Shelter-Belts. 

534.  As  their  name  implies,  these  are  belts  of  woodland,  primarily 
intended  to  protect  the  fields  or  places  adjacent  to  them  from  the 
winds,  and  to  equalize  to  some  extent  the  temperature  and  humidity 
of  a  country,  by  mitigating  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  by 
lessening  the  effects  of  drouth.     They  are  of  special  benefit  to  fruit 
culture,  and  when  planted  around  an  orchard,  in  a  dry  climate, 
they  tend  to  maintain  a  uniform  and  increased  yield,  the  effect  of 
which  is  often  made  apparent  by  comparisons  with  the  barrenness 
and  failure  of  orchards  not  thus  protected. 

535.  Their  effect  in  diminishing   the  damages  that  occasionally 
happen  from  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects,  is  well  proved ;  and 
by  favoring  the  breeding  of  insectivorous  birds,  they  further  pro- 
mote the  destruction  of  the  enemies  of  our  fruit  and  field  crops. 

536.  Their  direct  influence  upon  pasturage  and  meadows  is  seen 
in  the  fresh  green  color  of  the  herbage,  and  its  perceptibly  larger 
growth.     They  have  been  known  to  double  the  yield  of  grain  in 
fields  surrounded  by  them,  by  preventing  injuries  to  which  open 
and  naked  fields  are  exposed. 

537.  In  snowy  countries,  an  important  effect  is  secured  in  their 
preventing  the  drifting  of  snows,  which  cover  the  surface  longer 
and  melt  away  more  slowly.     The  water  will  settle  into  the  ground, 
and  the  soil  remain  moist  for  a  longer  period  than  in  broad  open 
fields.     Their  immediate  shelter  to  gardens,  buildings,  and  stock 
yards,  and  the  cheerful  and  pleasant  aspect  that  they  impart  to  a 
country,  are  obvious. 

538.  A  shelter-belt  should  be  planted  more  closely  than  would  be 
advantageous  in  a  forest,  and  as  the  outside  gets  more  air  and  light, 
the  trees  along  the  borders  will  be  more  thrifty  than  those  in  the  in- 
terior.    It  should  be  not  less  than  four  rods  in  width,  but  ten  rods 
would  be  better.     For  full  benefit,  they  should  not  be  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  apart 


Shelter-Belts.  133 

509,  As  our  public  lands  were  all  surveyed  in  lines  running  north 
and  south,  and  at  right  angles  to  this  course,  these  directions  form 
the  natural  ones  for  the  subdivisions  of  farms.  The  act  for  encour- 
agement of  tree-planting  in  Nebraska  affords  certain  premiums  for 
trees,  if  planted  in  belts  running  east  and  west,  which  implies  that 
they  are  there  thought  to  afford  most  protection  against  winds  from 
the  north  or  south.  In  summer,  \ve  have  most  to  dread  from  the  lat- 
ter, and  in  winter  from  the  former.  In  a  region  where  such  belts 
are  on  every  farm,  the  one  that  shelters  from  the  north  affords  a 
southern  protection  to  the  lands  adjacent,  and  both  farms  are 
benefited. 

540.  In  an  east  and  west  belt,  the  south  side  being  most  exposed 
to  the  sun,  should  be  planted  by  kinds  that  suffer  least  from  heat 
and  drouth,  and  that  in  a  dry  region  afford  the  most  shade.     The 
north  side  of  such  a  belt  will  be  the  most  favorable  for  a  double  belt 
of  evergreens,  which  will  thrive  in  such  a  place,  if  they  can  be 
made  to  grow  anywhere,  and  which  by  their  close  evergreen  foliage 
will  give  the  belt  more  decided  effect  as  a  shelter  against  the  hot  and 
dry  winds  of  summer,  and  the  sweeping  storms  from  the  north  in 
winter. 

541.  There  are  some  careful  observers  who  express  decided  pref- 
erence for  a  shelter-belt  running  north  and  south.    In  this  direction, 
both  sides  are  exposed  an  equal  number  of  hours  to  the  sun,  but  the 
west  side  receives  more  heat,  as  being  in  the  sunshine  in  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day.     In  such  a  belt,  a  line  of  evergreens  would  do  best 
in  the  middle,  or  a  little  nearer  the  east  side,  if  not  overshaded  by 
other  trees. 

5-12.  It  is  our  decided  opinion  that  belts  would  prove  of  greatest 
benefit  to  agriculture,  if  planted  in  both  directions,  and  if  this  cus- 
tom were  generally  adopted  in  a  prairie  country,  farms  would  pro- 
tect one  another  against  injurious  winds  from  any  direction,  and  if 
in  sufficient  proportion,  the  humidity  of  the  climate  would-be  per- 
ceptibly increased,  and  the  tendency  to  drouth  lessened. 

543.  The  planting  of  a  shelter-belt  does  not  materially  differ  from 
that  elsewhere  described,  for  groves.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated 
a  year  or  two  before,  to  thoroughly  decompose  the  sod,  and  the 
seeds,  cuttings,  or  young  plants  should  be  set  in  quincunx  rows, 
and  be  kept  clear  of  grass  and  weeds  till  they  shade  the  ground. 
They  must  be  protected  from  stock  of  all  kinds  until  beyond  their 


134  Shelter- Belts :  Planting  along  Eailroads. 

reach  or  power  of  injury,  when  they  may  be  used  for  their  shelter 
in  winter. 

544.  The  inside  rows  may  be  planted  with  black  walnut,  oak,  ca- 
talpa,  ash,  or  other  kinds  of  most  value  for  timber;  and  when  a 
belt  becomes  old  and  thin,  it  would  be  better  to  cut  it  off,  after 
starting  a  new  one  under  its  shelter.  The  ground  fertilized  by  the 
decay  of  leaves  for  many  years  might  be  broken  up  and  cultivated 
for  a  time  with  great  advantage.  In  older  countries,  the  rules  of 
rotation  in  the  culture  of  timber  and  of  farm  crops  have  been  set- 
tled by  long  practice,  and  the  advantages  from  this  are  well  under- 
stood ;  but  in  our  country  they  are  as  yet  unappreciated,  and  to  a 
great  degree  unknown. 

545.,  For  a  narrow,  but  effectual  wind-break,  a  double  row  of 
Scotch  or  white  pine,  in  rows  eight  or  ten  feet  apart,  and  at  about 
the  same  distance  between  the  trees  in  the  rows,  will  form,  in  six 
or  eight  years,  in  a  climate  where  they  can  be  grown,  a  close  and 
effectual  screen. 

Protection  of  Railroad  Cuts  from  Drifting  Snows  by  Tree-Planting. 

546.  In  no  form  of  planting  do  shelter-belts  show  greater  benefits 
than  along  the  deep  cuts  of  railroads,  in  an  open  country  liable  to 
deep  snows.     They  should  be  planted,  in  these  cases,  upon  both 
sides  of  the  road,  but  wider  on  that  exposed  to  the  most  wind, 
which  will  generally  be  the  north  or  west  sides. 

547.  In  preparing  the  soil  for  this  planting  upon  new  prairies,  it 
should  be  broken  up  in  June,  in  strips  a  rod  and  a  half  to  two 
rods  wide,  parallel  with  the  line  of  road  and  about  seventy-five  or 
eighty  feet  from  the  center.     The  ground  should  be  back-set  by 
plowing  deeper  in  September  or  October,  and  again  as  deep  as  prac- 
ticable as  early  in  the  spring  following  as  may  be.     Immediately 
after  plowing,  the  ground  should  be  harrowed,  and  set  with  cuttings, 
or  planted  with  seedlings,  in  lines  from  four  to  six  feet  apart,  and 
about  a  foot  apart  in  the  rows.     In  general,  there  should  be  four  to 
six  rows  on  the  side  most  exposed,  and  not  less  than  three  (but 
better  more)  on  the  other  side. 

548.  In  places  particularly  exposed  to  oblique  winds  along  the 
valleys,  the  plantation  might  widen  out  to  advantage,  forming  a 
grove  of  some  extent.     The  kinds  most  certain  in  northern  and 
snowy  region  are  the  cottonwoods  and  willows.    Where  the  soil  and 


Planting  along  Railroads.  135 

climate  favor,  the  evergreens,  and  especially  the  white  and  red  ce- 
dars, the  Scotch  pine  and  the  Norway  or  black  spruce  are  most  ef- 
fectual. They  should  be  started  in  nurseries  in  all  eases,  as  ever- 
greens require  more  care  at  first. 

549.  When  planted  or  set,  the  rows  must  be  thoroughly  culti- 
vated by  stirring  the  ground  with  a  cultivator  or  by  hand-hoeing 
until  the  trees  appear  to  need  it  no  longer.     For  the  first  and  second 
years  a  double  cultivator  may  be  used,  if  care  is  taken  to  protect 
the  row  between  with  cloths  under  the  forward  part.     If  bent  down, 
the  trees  will  straighten  up,  and  if  not  broken,  or  the  bark  torn,  they 
will  not  be  injured.     Plantations  thus  set  will  need  thinning  as  they 
become  well  started,  and  will  require  protection  against  cattle  and 
against  fires. 

550.  For  the  prevention  of  injury  from  prairie  fires,  lines  of  fresh 
earth  should  be  formed  outside  near  the  trees,  and  at  a  distance 
of  one  or  two  hundred  feet  parallel  with  them,  by  plowing  two  or 
three  furrows,  and  burning  off  the  space  between  in  a  still  time, 
and  as  early  in  the  fall  as  fire  can  be  made  to  spread.     The  grass 
between  the  belts,  along  the  track,  should  in  this  manner  be  also 
cleared  off  every  fall,  and  by  these  precautions  the  chances  of  acci- 
dent from  fire  would  be  almost  wholly  removed. 

551.  In  the  North-western  States,  the  planting  time  lasts  about 
a  month,  and  ends  about  the  middle  or  twentieth  of  May.     It  be- 
gins again  in  October,  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth,  and   lasts  till 
freezing  weather.     Farther  so'uth,  the  spring  planting  begins  earlier, 
and  the  fall  planting  later,  and  both  will  vary  in  different  years. 

552.  Much  success  has  attended  the  planting  of  trees  along  the 
sides  of  railroad  cuts,  to  prevent  the  drifting  of  snows  in  the  winter 
in  lines  crossing  the  steppes  of  Russia.     The  first  of  these  experi- 
ments was  begun  in  the  spring  of  1876,  near  Nikitooka,  on  the 
Kursk-Kharkoff-Azov  Railroad,  about  1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a 
region  that  was  treeless,  and  utterly  unpromising.     It  was  in  fact 
selected  with  the  view  of  securing  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of 
the  measure,  in  case  the  trees  could  be  made  a  success.     Towards 
the  end  of  March,  a  strip  of  land  was  broken  up,  and  afterwards 
sub-soiled  and  harrowed.     On  the  10th  of  April,  the  season  being 
well  advanced,  over  100,000  trees  and  shrubs  were  set  from  nurse- 
ries, in  7  rows,  about  6  feet  apart,  and  6  feet  between  trees  in  each 
row,  the  nearest  one  being  84  feet  from  the  track.     The  kinds  set 


186  Planting  along  Railroads. 

were  the  hawthorn  (Crattzgus  oxycantha)  furtherest  from  the  track; 
next  the  elms  (  Ulmus  effusa  and  U.  suberosa^  the  maple  (Ascer  tartari- 
cum),  locust  (Robinia  pseudacaaia) ,  the  Caraganaarborescens,  and  last, 
towards  the  track,  aD other  row  of  hawthorn.  There  was  no  heap- 
ing up  of  tlift.  earth  around  the  roots,  but  the  soil  was  beaten  down 
level  and  smooth.  The  hawthorn  lost  its  leaves,  but  it  budded 
again,  and  came  on  in  good  healthy  condition,  and  proved  a  great 
success.  The  loss  was  not  over  one  per  cent,  chiefly  the  locust, 
which  had  been  planted  too  deep.  The  Ulmus  suberosa  was  found 
the  most  hardy.  The  plantation  was  cultivated  by  hand-hoeing  and 
with  horse-cultivators. 

553.  In  August,  when  the  dry  season  came,  and  almost  all  the 
vegetation  of  the  steppe  was  dried  up,  and  the  ground  completely 
covered  with   cracks,  the  soil  in  this   plantation  remained  moist, 
and  could  be  rolled  into  balls.     At  the  end  of  the  season  some  of 
the  trees  were  taken  out,  and  it  was  found  that  the  roots  had  grown 
from  two  to  four  feet,  and  were  well  provided  with  fibers. 

554.  In  establishing  a  nursery  for  supplying  the  trees  used  for 
this  work,  the  ground  was  surrounded  by  rows  of  trees  (maples, 
elms,  and  caragana),  and  the  seed  when  sown  were  well  watered, 
and  the  ground  covered  with  straw  until  the  plants  began  to  ap- 
pear.    This  litter  was  then  gradually  removed,  and  laid  in  the  paths 
between  the  seed-beds,  in  order  to  keep  the  moisture  as  much  as  pos- 
sible in  the  soil.     It  was  still  found  necessary  to  water  the  plants  in 
the  beds,  until  they  had  got  well  started.     By  the  end  of  summer 
the  locusts  had  made  a  growth  of  from  6  to  18  inches,  and  the  others 
averaged  10  inches.     The  so-called  autumnal  sowings  began  in  Au- 
gust, and  was  continued  up  to  the  middle  of  December,  and  all  of 
them  were  covered  carefully  with  straw. 

555.  It  is  found  on  the  steppes  that  successful  planting  depends 
upon  thorough  cultivation  and  deep  sub-soil  plowing.     The  example 
of  the  railroads  is  being  followed  by  many  of  the  farmers  who  have 
witnessed  the  result,  and  who  had  been  strongly  prejudiced  against 
any  attempts  at  planting,  believing  that  it  could  not  succeed. 

556.  Upon  other  lines  of  railroad  extensive  plantations  have  been 
commenced,  the  usual  number  of  rows  being  seven,  and  the  series 
adopted  upon  one  of  them  being  as  follows,  counting  outward  from 
the  track,  viz.  :   Caragana  arborescen3,  Robmia  pseudacacia,    Ulmus 
suberosa,  Acer  tartaricum,  Robinia  pseudacacia,  Acer  tartaricum,  Ulmus 


Cutting  and  Seasoning  of  Wood.  137 

suberosa  mixed  with  the  locust,  and  the  last  two  rows  the  Caragana 
alone.  In  one  case  plants  were  taken  too  old,  and  the  drouth  and 
cattle  caused  the  destruction  of  25  per  cent.  In  another  case  it  was 
21  percent,  and  in  another  some  of  the  pines  were  planted,  but 
with  poor  success.  The  general  results  are,  however,  deemed  satis- 
factory, and  in  many  cases  the  loss  did  not  exceed  eight  per  cent. 
In  all  of  these  plantations,  the  seeds  were  sown  in  local  nurseries 
along  the  lines  of  the  roads,  and  the  transplanting  is  done  before  the 
trees  become  of  much  size.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  deep  and 
thorough,  and  its  subsequent  cultivation  carefully  kept  up. 

' 
CHAPTER  XllfU  DIVERSITY 

O:F 

CUTTING    AND    SEASONING    OF   WOOD; 


T/ie  proper  Time  for  Cutting  Timber. 

557.  As  a  general  rule,  timber  cut  in  the  season  when  vegetation 
is  suspended,  or  in  deciduous  species,  when  the  leaves  are  off  and 
the  growth  of  the  year  is  ended,  lasts  longer  and  seasons  more  readily 
than  when  cut  in  the  season  of  active  growth,  and  when  the  tree  is 
full  of  sap.     In  the  winter  season  it  is  found  that  there  are  stored 
up  in  the  interior  cells,  the  elements  that  are  to  serve  for  the  first 
growth  of  the  next  season,  such  as  starch,  etc.     This  is  proved  by 
applying  chemical  tests,  such  as  solutions  of  iodine,  which  will  color 
the  medullary  rays  of  winter-cut  wood,  in  thin  sections,   with  a 
deeper  violet-tinge  than  in  wood  cut   in  spring  or  early  summer. 
In  cases  where  the  wood  is  to  be  peeled,  the  timber  can  only  be  cut 
in  early  summer.     Hoop-poles  should  never  be  cut  when  the  bark 
will  peel,  as  their  utility  and  value  are  lessened. 

558.  Summer   has,  from    time   immemorial,    been   the   favorite 
season    for   cutting    coniferous   timber   in   the   Vosges  of  Eastern 
France.     Perhaps  one  great  advantage  in  this,  results  from  the  fact 
that  it  can  be  peeled  at  that  season,  and  thus  saved  from  the  injuries 
that  are  very  likely  to  occur  from  the  attack  of  bark-boring  injects. 
All  timber  that  is  to  be  peeled,  must  be  cut  in  the  early  part  of 
summer.     It  will  then  season  more  readily  than  it  could  if  the  bark 
had  been  left  on.     Coniferous  woods  will  generally  remain  white, 
and  the  lumber  will  be  lighter  in  weight.    There  are,  indeed,  certain 
advantages  to  be  gained  by  summer  cutting,  which  have  led  an  aj> 


138  Cutting  and  Seasoning  of  Wood. 

proved  French  writer1  to  remark  as  follows  :  "  The  result  of  this  ex- 
perience has  a  tendency  to  contradict  the  received  opinion  relative  to 
the  time  of  cutting  the  deciduous  Avoods,  and  seems  also  to  afford 
an  argument  in  favor  of  cutting  these  trees  in  summer,  after  the 
movements  of  the  sap  has  ceased—  if  not  with  respect  to  their 
calorific  properties,  at  least  in  favor  of  their  durability.  But  it 
would  be  imprudent  to  give  a  positive  opinion  upon  this  point  until 
the  facts  have  been  accurately  ascertained  by  numerous  exact  and 
comparable  experiments,  and  until  this  has  been  done,  it  would  be 
safer  to  follow  the  old  rules.  It  is,  furthermore,  probable  that  the 
difference  is  chiefly  shown  in  the  more  or  less  complete  maturity  of 
the  sap-wood,  and  that  it  is  greater  in  that  part."  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  the  question  as  to  the  proper  season  for  cutting  can  not  be 
regarded  as  settled,  until  more  carefully  settled  by  observation. 

559.  It  may  be  of  some  historical  interest,  but  probably  of  not 
much  practical  importance,  to  notice  the  superstitions  that  have  pre- 
vailed, and  which  are  still  observed,  with  respect  to  the  effect  of  the 
moon's  age  at  the  time  that  trees  are  felled.    It  is  traced  in  the  writings 
of  the  ancients  and  is  mentioned  by  Columella,  Cato,  Vitruvius,  and 
Pliny.     The  first  Napoleon  directed  that  the  time  for  felling  naval 
timber  should  be  "in  the  wane  of  the  moon,  from  November  1st  to 
March  15th."    The  wood-cutters  in  some  countries  act  in  accordance 
with  this  belief. 

560.  It  is  laid  down  as  a  precept  by  Behlen,2  that  "all  build- 
ing timber  must  be  felled  two  or  three  days  before  or  after  the  new 
moon,  and  in  a  dry  time,  and  oak  timber  always  at  the  new  moon," 
and  adds,  that  the  timber  cut  at  that  time  has  greater  durability. 
He  gives  nearly  two  pages  of  precepts,  extending  to  particular  days 
of  the  week  in  connection  with  the  moon's  age,  and  varying  some- 
what in  different  seasons  of  the  year.    We  deem  these  rules  as  quite 
without  reason,  and  can  see  no  other  effect  from  the  moon's  presence 
or  absence  than  that  due  to  a  moderate  amount  of  light  without 
heat. 

The  Seasoning  of  Woods. 

561.  Wood  when  newly  cut,  contains  from  thirty-seven  to  forty- 
eight  per  cent  of  water,  depending  upon  the  kind,  age,  and  the  season 

1  H.  banquette,  late  Director  of  the  School  of  Forestry,  at  Nancy,  France. 

2  Real-und  Verbal-Lexicon,  der  Frost  und  Jagdkunde. — iv.  676. 


Seasoning  of  Wood. 


139 


of  vegetation,  the  older  wood  being  generally  heavier  than  the 
young,  and  the  weight  greater  in  the  active,  rather  than  the  dor- 
mant season. 

562.  This  water  is  not  chemically  united,  and  a  part  of  it  is  given 
out  when  exposed  to  the  air.  But  at  a  certain  point  it  ceases  to  be- 
come lighter,  and  after  that  it  gains  or  looses  in  weight,  as  the 
temperature  and  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  vary.  The  following 
table  shows  the  changes,  in  percentage  of  weight,  that  occur  with 
some  kinds  of  woods  by  seasoning : 

Percentage  in  weight   of  Water  in  Woods,  at   different  periods  after 

Cutting. 


ROUND  WOOD  FROM  BRANCHES. 

ROUND  WOOD  FROM  YOUNG 
TREES. 

G  mo. 

1  year. 

18IHO. 

2  years. 

6  mo. 

1  year. 

18  mo. 

2  years. 

Beech  .   

33.48 

24.00 

19.80 

20.32 

30.44 

25,46 

18.GO 

19.95 

Oak  

31.20 

2H.90 

24.55 

21.IW 

3'2.71 

215.74 

23  .-",5 

20.28 

Hornbeam  

31.38 

25.:  >•  9 

2233 

19.30 

27.19 

2:i.08 

20.00 

18.59 

Birch  

37.34 

28.99 

24.12 

21  78 

39.72 

29.01 

22.73 

19.52 

Poplar    
Fir    

35.09 

28.29 

20.01 
17.14 

21.85 
15.0'.) 

19.44 
1800 

40.45 
33.78 

26.22 

10.87 

17.77 
15.21 

17.92 
18.09 

Pine  

35.30 

17.59 

15.72 

17.39 

41.49 

18.67 

15.  G3 

17.42 

5G3.  It  appears  from  this  table,  that  there  is  generally  nothing 
gained,  but  something  lost  in  keeping  woods  any  longer  than  eighteen 
months,  as  some  of  them,  such  as  the  beech,  fir  and  pine,  become 
damp  rather  than  dry  by  longer  keeping,  and  the  others  gain  in 
dry  ness  but  feebly  after  that  time.  Mr.  Marcus  Bull,  in  his  experi- 
ments upon  the  properties  of  woods,  many  years  since,  ascertained 
that  wood,  after  being  perfectly  dried,  when  exposed  in  a  room 
without  fire  for  a  year,  absorbed  on  an  average,  of  46  kinds, 
10  per  cent  of  their  weight,  in  common  states  of  the  weather,  and 
8  per  cent  in  the  dry.  A  coincidence  was  noticed  in  the  weight 
of  charcoal  from  these  woods  similarly  exposed.  The  amount  of 
moisture  absorbed  was  not  found  t;>  diminish  with  their  increase  of 
density,  while  green  woods  in  drying  lost  uniformly  less  in  weight, 
according  as  their  density  was  greater.  Hickory,  from  green  to  ab- 
solutely dry,  lost  37^  per  cent;  white  oak,  41;  and  maple,  48. 
Assuming  the  general  average  at  42  per  cent,  we  have  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  economy  in  freight,  between  the  carrying  of  wood 
green  cr  dry,  and  in  burning  wood  before  or  after  seasoning. 


140  Seasoning  of  Wood. 

564.  Wood  that  has  been  floated  will  season  sooner  and  become 
lighter  than  that  which  has  not.     By  long  exposure  in  the  water, 
with  repeated  drying,  wood  becomes  extremely  light,  as  we  often 
see  in  flood-wood. 

565.  For  seasoning  to  best  advantage,  wood  should  be  piled  in  the 
open  fields,  rather  than  in  the  woods,  and  it  is  customary  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  to  lay  some  pieces  lengthwise  of  the  pile,  well  braced  at  the 
outer  end ,  and  meeting  at  an  obtuse  angle  in  the  middle.     These  afford 
a  kind  of  arch,  open  at  the  bottom  for  the  air  to  circulate  under  the 
piles.     Where  fire-wood  is  piled  in  quantities  for  seasoning,  there 
should  be  intervals  between  the  piles,  in  order  to  give  access  to  the 
air  within. 

566.  Coniferous  wood  will  season  quicker  if  left  with  the  branches 
on  until  the  leaves  fall  off,  as  they  seem  to  evaporate  the  moisture 
from  the  wood.     Trees  felled  towards  the  north  are  more  exposed 
to  the  sun,  arid  season  sooner  than  in  other  positions. 

567.  The  seasoning  of  lumber  is  sometimes  hastened  by  artificial 
heat,  but  in  this  case  provision  must  be  made  for  ventilation,  or  the 
vapor  must  be  condensed  by  the  circulation  of  cold  water  through 
upright  pipes  placed  within  the  apartment.1 

568.  Oak  timber  is  sometimes  very  effectually  seasoned  by  being 
peeled  while  stUl  standing,  and  left  for  several  months  before  cutting. 
This  was  remarked  by  Vitruvius,  a  Roman  architect.     It  was  tried 
by  Duhamel,  in  the  preparation  of  ship-timber,  and  he  explained 
the  result  by  saying  that  although  such  trees  may  live  for  a  time 
after  peeling,  they  can  not  form  new  layers  of  wood,  and  that  the 
growth  due  to  a  new  deposit  of  wood  was  carried  into  the  cellular 
tissues  of  the  sap  wood,  and  perhaps  the  heart  wood,  rendering  it 
heavier  and  stronger,  but  more  liable  to  crack.     This  method  is 
expensive,  and  is  now  scarcely  ever  used. 

569.  The  seasoning  of  wood  is  always  hastened  by  taking  off 
the    bark,    and    in    the    case    of  willow,    cottonwood,    and    some 
other  kinds,  it  tends  to  harden  the  wood  and  increase  its  durabil- 
ity.    As  a  general  rule,  all  railroad  tics,  telegraph  poles,  and  posts 
last  longer  when  peeled,  and  no  timber  or  lumber  should  be  used  in 
constructions  of  any  kind  before  seasoning,  unless  in  places  where 
the  air  has  full  access. 

1  Geo.  Wood's  patent. 


Seasoning  of  Wood. 


141 


68.  Effect  of  Seasoning  of 

Kounu'iimber,  showing 


570.  Seasoning  tends  to  secure  the  durability  of  wood  not  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  cr  in  contact  with  the  earth,  or  with  damp 
walls,  if  sufficient  ventilation  is  allowed.     The  presence  of  moisture, 
and  especially  of  the  starch,  sugar,  and  albumen  of  the  sap  in  wood, 
tends  to  hasten  fermentation  and  decay.     If  these  are  partly  dis- 
solved out  by  placing  the  freshly  cut  timber  in  running  water,  it 
dry  s  more  readily.     Seasoning  by  smoking  has  the  effect  of  increas- 
ing the  durability  of  wood,  by  charging  it  with  creosote,  but  this  is 
corrosive  to  iron,  and  should  not  be  used  in  contact  with  it. 

571.  In  the  process  of  seasoning,  wood  tends  to  shrink,  from  the 
contraction  of  the  tissues  as  they  become  dry. 

As  there  is  more  moisture  and  less  wood  fiber 
in  the  outer  layers,  the  contraction  is  greatest 
toward  the  outside,  as  shown  in  the  annexed 
engraving.  The  process  takes  place  more 
slowly,  and  with  less  cracking  in  winter.  It  is 
still  further  improved  by  delaying  the  drying, 

vhinli    rnnv  KP    rlnnA    Kv  r»l«ipi'ncr    in    tliP    clinrlp 

-\vnicn  may  be  done  Dy  placing  m  the  snacie, 
where  the  air  circulates  freely  between  the 
pieces,  but  it  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  dry- 
ing winds. 

572.  It  is  desirable  to  prevent  the  cracking  of  timber  at  the  ends, 
by  which  means  a  loss  is  suffered  in  the  more  valuable  kinds.     This 
may  be  prevented  in  a  great  degree,  by  pasting  heavy  paper  over 
the  end,  or  by  painting  or  washing  with  diluted  muriatic  acid,  neu- 
tralized with  lime. 

573.  If  there  be  nothing  at  hand  better,  the  timbers  may  be  lightly 
shaded  from  the  sun  by  branches  of  trees  or 

any  other  slight  covering,  where  it  is  desirable 

to  prevent  deep  crevices  from  being  formed. 

Shrinkage  tends  to  distort  timber  that  is  dressed 

green,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  and  un- 

less the  center   of  growth  is  in  the  center  of 

the  piece,  it  will  need  to  be  dressed  over  again 

to  secure  a  true  form.     Boards  and  plank  whenc9.  Tendency  to  Distor- 

cut  green  will  warp  from  this  cause,  the  contrac-    by  ShriS^? 

tion  being  strongest  on  the  side  fur- 

therest  from  the  center  of  growth,  and 

least  in  the  direction  of  the  medul- 

70.  Tendency  to  Warp  by  Contraction 
rays.  nearest  the  Ontside  of  the  Tree. 


142  Seasoning  of  Wood:  Strength  of  Timber. 

574.  Wood  cut  in  planes  radiating  from  the  center  can  not  warp. 
\Vhen  sawn  into  this  form,  there   is  a  waste  from  u  feather-edge 
on  one  side,  and  from  extra  thickness  on   the  other,  but  the  silver- 
grain  is  brought  out  with  great  beauty  in  some  species  by  this  mode 
of  cutting,  and  for  some  uses  it  may  be  preferable.     When  wood 
is  to  be  used  as  the  foundation  for  veneering,  it  should  be  cut  as 
near  as  may  be  in  the  direction  of  the  medullary  rays,  and  it  must 
be  thoroughly  seasoned. 

575.  English  shipwrights  generally  consider  that  three  years  are 
required  to  season  large  timbers.     They  are  usually  cut  to  shape  a 
year  before  they  are  framed,  and  then  left  another  year  in  the 
skeleton  before  being  planked.1     All  wood  used  in  carving  requires 
the  most  careful  and  thorough  seasoning. 

576.  Hard-woods  season  more  slowly  than  those  of  light   open 
grain.     They  may  often  be  cut  to  nearly  the  shapes  required  for 
use  before  being  put  away  to  dry,  and  should  be  piled  open  with  spaces 
for  the  air  to  circulate  between  the  pieces.     It  may  be  desirable  to 
pile  them  over  again,  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  expose  the  parts  at 
first  in  contact. 

The  Strength  of  Timber,  with  respect  to  its  Form,  and  to  the  Lines  of 

Growth. 

577.  The  strength  of  the  timber  when  used  in  horizontal  pieces 
depends  upon  its  form,  and  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  cut, 
with  reference  to  the  layers  of  annual  growth.     If  laid  flatwise, 


71.  Proper  Mode   of   placing  a  72.  Improper  Mode  of  placing  a  Plank 

Plank    to    secure    Durability  to  secure  Durability  and  Strength, 

and  Strength. 

with  the  layers  convex  on  the  upper  side,  they  act  as  an  arch,  and 
tend  to  give  it  strength.  If  the  same  piece  were  laid  edgewise, 
like  a  joist,  it  would  be  much  stronger  than  if  the  lines  of  growth 
were  transverse,  and  when  such  pieces  break  from  over-loading,  the 
crack  is  more  apt  to  be  between,  than  across,  these  layers  of  growth. 

lBritton  on  the  Dry  Rot,  p.  C8. 


Defects  of  Timber. 


143 


73.  Heart-Shake. 


If,  on  the  contrary,  a  plank  be  laid  flatwise,  with  the  hollow  of  the 
grain  up,  the  pressure  of  whatever  weight  is  applied,  will  be  on  the 
inside  of  the  arch,  and  if  exposed  to  moisture,  the  water  will  tend 
to  settle  between  the  layers  of  growth,  and  thus  hasten  its  decay. 
These  principles  find  application  in  the  laying  of  planks  in  side- 
walks, bridges,  platforms,  the  floors  of  warehouses,  and  the  like. 

Defects  of  Timber  from  Various  Causes. 

578.  Timber  is  liable  to  acquire   certain  defects  from  old  age, 
shrinkage  in  seasoning,  or  other  causes, 

that  more  or  less  injure  its  quality  for 
strength,  and  its  value  for  use,  when 
sawn  into  lumber.  One  of  these  is  the 
"  heart-shake,"  perhaps  most  frequently 
seen  in  old  timber,  and  caused  by  the 
contraction  of  the  inner  portions  of  the 
tree,  as  the  first  symptom  of  decay. 

579.  The    "star-shake"  consists  of  a 
similar  contraction,  but   often  wider  to- 
wards the  outside,  as  seen  in  young  tim- 
ber when  exposed  to  rapid  drying  after 
being  cut  green.     It,  however,  is  often 
seen  in  the  tree  before  cutting,  and  some- 
times a  bulge  on  the  outside  of  the  tree 
shows  where  these   cracks  come  to  the 
surface. 

580.  The  "cup-shake"  is  a  separation 
between  the  rings  of  growth,  more  fre- 
quently found  near  the  roots  of  the  tree. 
It  may  be  caused  by  a  sudden  change  of 
temperature,    frosts,     storms,    or    other 
causes,    and   in    some    cases    it   extends 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  tree,  es- 
pecially if  the  ring  of  separation  is  com- 
plete at  the  base.     If  only  a  segment  is 
separate,  it  does  not  usually  extend  far 
up.     Again,  there  are  various  combina- 
tions of  these  defects  that  may  impair  the 

value  of  timber,  against  which  there  is      76'  CombinMRtw and Cup- 


74.  Star-Shake. 


75.  Cup-Shake. 


144      Defects  of  Timber. — Qualities  desirable  in  Fuel. 

no  known  prevention,  and  in  many  cases  there  are  no  means  of 
knowing  their  presence  until  the  tree  is  cut.  So  far  as  caused  or 
increased  by  rapid  seasoning,  they  may  be  prevented  by  cutting 
only  in  the  season  when  vegetation  is  dormant,  and  by  drying 
slowly  in  the  shade. 

581.  Wherever  the  bark  becomes  loose  on  a  tree,  to  that  extent 
the  wood  looses  its  vitality  under  it,  and  it  can  only  be  healed  by 
the  growing  over  of  the  wood  from  the  side.     These  accidents  may 
be  caused  by  external  injuries,  scorching  from  fires,  sun-scalds,  or 
frost  when  the  wood  is  full  of  sap.     When  the  wood  from  opposite 
sides  meets  over  such  a  place,  it  will  iu  two  or  three  years  consoli- 
date entirely,  and  form   continuous   layers   over  it,  but  the  dead 
wood  within,  if  not  previously  decayed,  remains  unchanged.     These 
bare  spots  should  be  covered  over  with  coal-tar  or  paint,  if  the  tree 
is  valuable,  but  if  there  are  decayed  places  these  should  first  be 
cleaned  out,  and  the  surface  should  be  dry  when  the  tar  or  paint  is 
applied. 

582.  In  some  cases  wood  in  the  first  stages  of  decay  shows  a 
change  of  color,  before  its  strength  or  texture  is  impaired,  as  in 
some  species  of  the  pine.     It  will  generally  be  stopped  by  drying, 
and  may  not  affect  its  value.     The  tint  of  wood  is  in  a  great  de- 
gree influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  upon  which  it  has  grown. 
The  larch  and  the  fir  on  a  dry,  level,  and  deep  sandy  soil,  are  often 
of  a  slightly  reddish  tinge,  while  in  other  situations  they  are  nearly 
white.     It  is  probably  from  some   chemical  differences  in  the  soil 
that  mahogany  and  other  tropical'  woods  of  the  same  species  are  of 
deeper  shades  of  color  in  some  localities  than  in  others. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

FUEL — CHARCOAL— WOOD-GAS. 

The  Qualities  desirable  in  Wood  for  Fuel. 

583.  The  best  qualities  of  wood  for  fuel  are  found  when  it  burns 
easily  and  uniformly — neither  too  fast  nor  too  slow — and  when,  in 
a  given  volume,  it  gives  the  greatest  amount  of  heat,     These  qual- 
ities are  found  in  highest  degree  at  full  maturity,  and  before  decline. 
In  coppice-woods,  grown  from   the  sprouts,  this  quality  is  reached 
sooner  than  from  seed,  and  in  those  from   old  stocks  sooner  than 


Qualities  desirable  in  Fad — Charcoal.  145 

from  the  younger  ones,  the  period  ranging  from  25  to  40  years.  If 
we  wish  wood  for  burning  only,  the  coppice  is  more  profitable  than 
full-grown  timber,  although,  in  a  given  quantity  of  best  fire-wood 
from  each,  a  cord  of  the  latter  would  be  worth  the  most. 

584.  But,  for  charcoal,  the  point  of  greatest  excellence  is  almost 
reached  in  middle  age,  when  the  difference  is  very  small,  between  its 
excellence  then  and  at  full  majority.1 

585.  In  1826,  Marcus  Bull,  of  Philadelphia,  a  gold-beater  by 
profession,  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and 
much  interested  in  scientific  studies,  first  published  the  results  of 
experiments  carefully  made  by  him  upon  the  heating  and  coaling 
qualities  of  many  kinds,  chiefly  of  native  wood.     They  possess  per- 
manent value,  and  may  be  concisely  stated  as  in  table  on  the  fol- 
lowing page. 

586.  It  should  be  remembered  that  woods  differ  according  to  the 
soil,  aspect,  elevation,  and  other  conditions  under  which  they  have 
been  grown,  and  that  allowance  must  be  made  for  these  differences 
in  applying  the  above  or  any  other  statements. 

Charcoal. 

587.  When  wood  is  heated  to  about  530°  (Fahr.),  or  above,  the 
volatile  parts  pass  off  in  the  form  of  watery  vapor,  acetic  acid,  tar, 
etc.,  with  certain  uou-condensible  gases,  and  there  remains  a  fixed 
residue  called  charcoal. 

588.  This  substance  is  black,  porous,  brittle,  and  when  struck, 
sonorous.     It  breaks  with  a  glossy  conchodial  fracture,  and  wrhen 
prepared  at  a  low  degree  of  heat,  it  retains  the  form  and  structure 
of  the  wood,  but  in  reduced  bulk.     It  is  among  the  most  inde- 
structible of  substances  when  exposed  to  the  open  air,  or  in  the 
ground,  and  for  this  reason  billets  of  charcoal  are  buried  in  the  soil, 
to  mark  the  corners  of  sections  and  their  subdivisions  in  our  public 
land  surveys.2 

1  Karsfen,  cited  by  Lorentz  $  Parade,  5  ed.,  p.  443.  In  the  oak,  the  propor- 
tion was  25.45  to  25.00;  in  the  beech,  25.50  to  25.75;  and  in  the  hornbeam, 
24  90  to  26.10. 

2  In  visiting;  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  in  1881,  we  noticed  the  woodwork 
of  doors  and  windows  that  had  been  charred  by  a  lava-stream  nearly  two 
thousand  years  a«;o,  in  which  the  kind  of  wood  could  be  determined,  and 
even  the  form  into  which  it  had  been  wrought. 


146    Marcus  Bull's  Table— Heating  Qualities  of  Wood. 


Comparative  Qualities  and  Values  for  Seating  Purposes  of  different 
American  Woods. 


00 

35 

CD 

T 

CC 

TJ 

o 

5 

W 
C 

H 

^5 

S 

§ 

5-3^ 

B 

g 

0 

O3 

o  £, 

O  H..  Q 

•     <D  (C 

0 

O 

r*| 

0 

Oo 

3.2, 

3.o 

|gsf 

If 

p 

HJ 

M.^4 

p 

3  "* 

22. 

2,""" 

§  ^  = 

pr™ 

Common  names. 

2, 
P. 

| 

33 

i1 

2, 

!§• 

^3 

|| 

'^  0 

C  H^J 

go 

o  |-|> 

B  ~ 

fi 

*< 

f3 

O  £' 

•< 

o 

C  ~i 

O-O 

0,", 

S.| 

•<s> 

^ 

0 

P'S 

0 

i 

•  B 

•  3 

&** 

1 

o 

HJ 
Pi 

p 

si 

P 

1—  ' 

o 

c| 

(i  2* 

P  CD 

a?  r- 

h.  m 

White  Ash. 

0  772 

3450 

25  74 

.547 

28  78 

888 

31 

6  40 

77 

Apple  Tree 

0  697 

3115 

25  00 

.445 

23  41 

779 

33 

6  40 

70 

White  Beech  

0  724 

3236 

19  62 

.518 

27  26 

635 

23 

6. 

65 

Black  Birch 

0  697 

3115 

19.40 

.428 

22.52 

604 

27 

6. 

63 

White  Birch 

0  530 

2369 

19.00 

364 

19  15 

450 

24 

g 

Butternut 

0  567 

2534 

20  .  79 

^237 

12  47 

527 

42 

6 

51 

Red  Cedar  

0  565 

2525 

24.72 

238 

12  52 

624 

50 

6  40 

56 

Chestnut  

0.522 

2333 

25  29 

.379 

19.  94 

590 

30 

6.40 

52 

Wild  Cherry 

0  597 

2668 

21.70 

411 

21  63 

579 

27 

6  10 

55 

Dogwood  

0.815 

3643 

21.00 

'.550 

28  94 

765 

26 

6  10 

75 

White  Elm....   

0  580 

2592 

24.85 

.357 

18  79 

644 

34 

6  40 

58 

Sour-Gum  

0.703 

3142 

22.16 

.400 

21.05 

696 

33 

6  20 

67 

Sweet-Gum  

0.634 

2834 

19  69 

.413 

21.73 

558 

26 

6. 

57 

Shell-bark  Hickory  

1.000 

4469 

26.29 

.625 

32  89 

1172 

36 

6.40 

100 

Pig-nut  Hickory  

0  949 

4241 

25  22 

.637 

33.52 

1070 

32 

6.40 

95 

Red-heart  H  ickory  

0  829 

3705 

22  90 

.509 

26.78 

848 

32 

6.30 

81 

Witch-Hazel  

0.784 

3505 

21  40 

.368 

19.36 

750 

39 

6.10 

72 

American  Holly..  

0  602 

2691 

22  .  77 

.374 

19.68 

613 

.31 

6  20 

57 

Hornbeam..   ..       

0  720 

8218 

19.00 

.455 

23  94 

611 

25 

6 

65 

Mountain  Laurel  

0  663 

2963 

24.02 

.457 

24.05 

712 

30 

6  40 

66 

Sugar  Maple..  

0  644 

2878 

21  43 

431 

22  68 

617 

27 

6.30 

60 

Soft  Maple  

0.597 

2668 

20.64 

.370 

19.47 

551 

28 

6. 

54 

Large  Magnolia  

0  605 

2704 

21.59 

.406 

21  36 

584 

27 

6  10 

56 

Chestnut  White-Oak  

0  885 

3655 

22  76 

.481 

25  31 

900 

36 

6  30 

86 

White  Oak  

0  855 

3821 

21.62 

.401 

21  10 

826 

39 

6  20 

81 

Shell-bark  White  Oak  

0  775 

3464 

21  50 

.437 

22  99 

745 

32 

6.20 

74 

Barren  Scrub  Oak..  

0  747 

3339 

23  17 

.3<L> 

20  63 

774 

38 

6  30 

73 

Pin  Oak  

0.747 

333't 

22  22 

.436 

22  94 

742 

82 

6.20 

71 

Scrub  Black  Oak  

0  72* 

3254 

23.80 

.387 

20  36 

774 

38 

6  30 

71 

Red  Oak  .   

0  728 

3254 

22  43 

.4(:(i 

21.05 

6:50 

30 

6  20 

69 

Barren  Oak  

0  694 

3102 

22.37 

^447 

23  52 

694 

29 

6.20 

66 

Rock  Chestnut  Oak  

0  678 

3030 

20  86 

.436 

22  94 

632 

28 

6. 

61 

Yellow  Oak  

0  653 

2919 

21  60 

.294 

15  52 

631 

41 

6  10 

60 

Spanish  Oak  

0  548 

2449 

22  95 

.362 

19.05 

562 

30 

6  20 

52 

Persimmon  

0.711 

3178 

23.44 

.469 

24.68 

745 

30 

6  30 

69 

Yellow  Pine 

0  551 

2463 

23  75 

333 

17  52 

585 

33 

6  30 

54 

Jersey  Pine  

0  478 

2137 

24  88 

.385 

20  26 

532 

26 

6.40 

48 

Pitch  Pine  

0  426 

1904 

26  76 

.298 

15.68 

510 

33 

6.40 

43 

White  pine 

0  418 

1868 

24  35 

293 

15  42 

4.")5 

30 

4  40 

42 

Yellow  Poplar  

0  563 

2516 

21.81 

.3.83 

21  15 

549 

27 

52 

Lombardy  Poplar  

0  397 

1776 

25.00 

.  245 

12  89 

444 

34 

6  40 

40 

Sassafras  

0  618 

2762 

22.58 

.427 

22  47 

627 

28 

6  20 

59 

Wild  Service  

0  887 

3964 

22  62 

.591 

31  26 

897 

29 

6  20 

84 

Sycamore  

0  53., 

2391 

23  60 

.374 

19  68 

564 

29 

6  30 

52 

Black  Walnut  

0  681 

3044 

22  56 

.418 

22  00 

687 

31 

6.20 

65 

Whortleberry         

0.752 

3361 

23  30 

505 

26  57 

783 

29 

6  30 

73 

Marcus  Balls  Table — Charcoal. 


147 


Botanical  Names  of  the  foregoing  kinds  of  Trees  and  Shrubs. 


15    Carve1 

1.  Fraxinus  Americana. 
2.  Pyrus  mains. 

17.  Hamamelis  virginica. 

3o.  Quercus    prinos  acumin~ 

aid. 

3.  Fag  us  si/lvatica. 

18.  J7f  J  opaca. 

34.  Quercuzfalcata. 

4.  Betula  Irnta. 

19.  Carpinvs  Americana. 

'Hi.  Diospyros  Virginiana. 

5.  Betula  alba,  var.  populi- 

20.  Kalmia  latifolia. 

86.  Pinus  mil  is. 

folia. 

21.  ^4cer  saccharinum. 

37.  PimiK  inops. 

G.  Julians  cinerea. 

22.  J.cer  rubrum. 

38.  Piuus  rigida. 

7.  Juniperus  Virginiana. 

23    Magnolia  g-randiflora. 

39.  Pinus  strobus. 

8.  Castanea  vesca,  var.  Amer- 

24. Quercus  prinus  palustris. 

40.  Liriodendron  tulipifcra. 

icana. 

25.  Quercus  alba. 

11.  Populus  dilatata. 

9.  Cerasus  Virginiana, 

26.  Quercus  obtuftiloba. 

42.  Sassafras  officinale. 

10.  Cornus  Florida. 

27.  Q«ercws  Catesbaei. 

43.  Amelanchie.r  Canadensis. 

11.   L'lmns  Americana. 

28.  Quercus  palustris. 

44.  Acer  pseudo-plntanus. 

12.  yi/xsa  mult/flora. 

29.  Quercus  Banisterii. 

4">.  Juglans  nigra. 

13.  Liquidambcf  sti/raciflua. 

30.  Q'lercus  rubra. 

1G.  FoccinfMTO  corymbosum. 

14    Cania  alba 

31.  Quercus  Jerruginea. 

15.  Carya  porcina. 

32.  Quercus  prinosmonticola. 

589.  Charcoal  is  a  slow  conductor  of  heat  and  a  non-conductor 
of  electricity.     When  exposed  to  the  most  intense  heat,  without  ac- 
cess of  air,  it  remains  unchanged,  but  it  burns  freely  without  flame 
or  smoke  in  the  open  air,  leaving  as  ashes  a  part  of  the  mineral 
constituents  of  the  wood  from  which  it  was  made. 

590.  It  absorbs  and  holds  moisture  with  great  readiness,  and  is 
an  active  absorbent  of  gases.     It  will  take  up  many  times  its  bulk, 
but  this  amount  is  much  greater  with  some  gases  than  others.1     It  is 
for  this  reason  a  most  valuable  disinfectant,  and  a  material  for  filters. 

591.  The  chief  use,  however,  of  charcoal  is  as  a  fuel  in  smelting 
ores,  and  in  forges,  furnaces,   and  other  metallurgical  operations, 
and  for  these  uses  immense  quantities  of  wood  are  annually  re- 
quired. 

592.  The  wood  for  charcoal  should  be  cut  only  in  winter,  and  it 
is  generally  piled  for  partial  seasoning  till  the  next  autumn.     It  is 
found,  as  is  shown  elsewhere  under  the  head  of  "  seasoning,"  that 
wood  acquires  its  greatest  dryness  in  about  eighteen  months,  but 
practically  a  single  summer's  drying  is  found  sufficient. 

593.  There  are  several  modes  of  charring  wood  in  use,  but  by 
far  the  most  common  one  is  that  in  "  metiers"  or  "  coal-pits."     For 

1  De  Saussure  found  that  boxwood  charcoal  would  absorb  90  times  its 
bulk  of  ammonia,  55  times  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  35  times  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  9}  times  of  oxygen,  1\  times  of  nitrogen,  and  If  times  of  hydro- 
gen. The  absorbing  power  is  greatest  when  the  wood  has  been  charred  at  a 
low  temperature  in  a  damp  atmosphere,  and  with  a  high  barometric  pressure 
of  the  air.  The  absorption  of  gases  is  attended  with  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature. 


148  Preparation  of  Charcoal. 

these,  a  place  should  be  selected  where  the  ground  is  dry,  and  a 
little  descending  from  the  central  part ;  the  rubbish  should  be  care- 
fully cleared  away,  the  soil  beaten  down  hard,  and  the  greatest 
precaution  taken  against  the  escape  of  fire.  In  Europe,  the  law 
generally  requires  that  a  trench  should  be  dug  around  the  coaling- 
ground,  and  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  shall  be  near.  The 
place  should  be  well  sheltered  from  the  winds,  and  the  soil  should  be 
compact,  and  not  so  porous  that  air  can  enter  through  it  from  below. 
594.  Three  stakes  are  first  set  in  a  triangular  form,  and  around 
these  the  wood  is  piled  as  closely  as  possible,  and  generally  as  cut  in 
lengths  of  3  to  4  feet.  It  is  either  laid  horizontally  or  vertically,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut,  taken  from  Karsten's  Atlas.  The 


77.  Vertical  Section  through  the  Centers  of  two  Different  Kinds  of 
Meilers. 

more  common  way  is  to  set  the  wood  endwise,  sloping  towards  the 
center,  and  there  is  usually  a  second  course,  with  the  top  filled  out 
und  made  convex  by  wood  piled  flatwise. 

595.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with  straw,  dead  leaves,  or  sod, 
and  over  this  with  earth,  and  the  fire  is  dropped  in  at  the  top. 
Around  the  bottom  holes  are  left  for  the  admission  of  air ;  or  some- 
times a  passage  is  left  on  one  side  for  introducing  the  fire.     It  is 
best  to  kindle  early  in  the  morning,  and  in  fine  weather,  because  i  t 
requires  much  attention  at  first  to  get  the  ignition  begun.     When 
this  is  fairly  established,  the  top  is  closed  with  sod. 

596.  At  first,  a  great  deal  of  steam  is  generated,  which  condenses 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cover,  and  especially  around  the  base, 
which  is  left  open ;  and  explosions  may  occur  from  the  admission 
of  air  to  the  inflammable  gases  within,  especially  with  dry  resinous 
woods. 


Preparation  of  Charcoal.  149 

597.  When  the  sweating  stage  is  over,  the  openings  around  the 
base  should  be  partly  closed,  but  some  vent-holes  must  be  left  for 
the  escape  of  gases.     If  hollow  places  form,  the  cover  must  be  re- 
moved, and  their  place  hastily  filled  in  with  wood.     The  process 
must  be  watched  day  and  night  until  it  is  completed,  which  is  known 
by  the  color  of  the  smoke.     The  time  required  for  cooling  is  gener- 
ally about  three  weeks.     The  meiler  is  then  packed  as  closely  as 
passible,  to  exclude  the  air,  and  when  cool  enough  the  coals  are 
drawn  out. 

598.  It  is  stated  from  experience  that  it  is  best  not  to  wait  until 
the  fire  is  wholly  extinguished,  but  to  quench  with  water  such  sparks 
or  burning  places  as  are  found. 

599.  Sometimes  a  meiler  is  made  higher  and  narrower  than  in  the 
preceding  figures,  and  in  every  form  it  is  convenient  to  have  plat- 
forms around  the  sides,  at  one  or  two  level<,  so  as  to  be  able  to  reach 
conveniently  every  part.     In  the  annexed  figure,  a,  6,  represents  the 
central    opening    for 

applying  the  fire,  c, 
d,  a  bank  of  earth, 
with  a  step  at  e.  An 
upper  step,  g,  is  sup- 
ported by  braces  on 
various  sides,  as  at/, 
and  near  the  top  the  ?g  gection  Qf  &  Me,lpf  nr  p  1.pit<  prepared  for  Firing> 

COVer  is  laid  Open  UU-  as  Practiced  in  Bavaria. 

til  the  whole  part  is  well  ignited,  and   the  steam  has  principally 
passed  off. 

600.  It  is  sometimes  preferred  to  burn  charcoal  in  kilns.     They 
are  generally  made  of  brick,  and  the  following  sizes,  among  others, 

are  in  use : 

Length.    Width.    Height.     Capacity  (Cords.) 
Used  in  New  England  j  g  feet.     12  feet.      12  feet.  5->feet. 

Type  of  those  used  in  Mexico 40    "        1!)    "         18    "  75    " 

A  kind  used  in  Michigan 48    "         17    '          18    "  90    ' 

It  requires  from  35  to  40  M.  of  brick  for  a  kiln  of  45  cords,  and 
60  to  65  M.  for  one  of  90  cords.  These  rectangular  kilns  are  arched 
at  the  top,  and  supported  externally  by  a  wooden  framework,  and 
iron  tie  rods.  They  have  an  iron  door  (d)  capable  of  being  made 
air-tight,  and  near  the  top  a  smaller  door  (e)  for  filing  the  upper 


150 


Preparation  of  Charcoal. 


part.     Along  the  sides  are  air-holes  (a,  b,  c,)  that  may  be  closed  at 
will. 

Fig.fi 


SIDE  ELEVATION 


END  ELEVATION 


79.  Charcoal  Kilns  — Side  elevation,  with  air-holes,  a,  b,  c.  End  elevation,  -with 
air-holes,  (i.  b,  c,  an  iron  door,  d,  tor  filling  with  wood  and  withdrawing  coal, 
and  sin  nil  door,  e.  for  completing  the  filling.  Cross-section,  with  air-holes, 
doors,  etc.,  as  iu  end  elevation.  The  figures  on  dotted  lines  are  feet  and 
inches. 

601.  Other  kilns  are  cylindrical,  with  a  low  arch  for  a  cover,  but 
the  principle  of  their  operation  does  not  essentially  differ  from  that 
above  represented.     They  all  have  openings  for  admitting  air  around 
the  base,  and  for  the  escape  of  gases  from  above,  all  of  which  may 
be  closed  at  will. 

602.  In  another  method,  the  kilns  are  of  brick  or  stone  made 
round  and  somewhat  conical  like  a  hay-stack,  with  openings  on  the 
side  for  filling  and  emptying,  and  air-holes  for  regulating  the  burning. 
They  are  of  various  capacities,  but  generally  hold  from  40  to  60 
cords  of  wood.     They  are  best  built  upon  sloping  ground,  with  doors 
on  the  upper  side  for  filling,  and  at  the  bottom  for  removing  the 
coal,  and  in  both  rectangular  and  conical  kilns  there  is  a  further  ad- 


Preparation  of  Charcoal. 


151 


vantage  from  having  several  near  together,  that  they  may  be  watched 
and  attended  at  less  expense. 

603.  In  kilns  of  every  form  it  will  be  found  that  the  acid  vapors 
of  the  smoke  tend  to  act  upon  the  lime  in  the  mortar,  and  to  corrode 
the  iron-work  exposed  to  its  action,  requiring  attention,  .in  order  to 
prevent  failure  or  accident  from  this  cause.     It  is  this  action  of 
smoke  upon  the  mortar  in  chimneys  that  sometimes  renders  them 
unsafe  when  they  become  old. 

604.  Charcoal  made  at  low  temperatures  contains  relatively  more 
carbon  and  other  gaseous  elements  than  at  a  high  degree  of  heat. 
The  quantity  also  depends  on  the  temperature,  and  the  duration  of 
the  process.     The  weight  and  excellence  is  generally  in  proportion 
to  the  dry  weight  of  the  wood  from  which  it  is  made,  and  it  is 
more  easily  kindled,  if  made  at  a  low  heat. 

605.  The  average  yield  in  weight  and  volume  varies,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  table : 

Percentage  of  Charcoal  made  in  Standing  Metiers,  as  shmvn  by  European 

Experiments.1 


In  Kilns  or 
"Standing  Meilers." 

In  Temporary  Meilers. 

KINDS  OF  WOOD. 

In  Weight. 

InVolume 

In  Weight. 

InVolume. 

Birch  body-wood  

20-21 

6:>-r,8 

18 

53 

Beech  and'oak  body-wood  

2:]-'J7 

52-64 

19 

47 

Beech  round-wood  

18-20 

56-i  ',2 

Pine  body-wood   

24-28 

60-70 

""19" 

"58"" 

Pine  round-  wood  

20-24 

42-aO 

18 

53 

Pine  stump-  wood.  ?  

21-23 

50-G5 

Spruce  body-wood  

22-25 

60-64 

20  " 

"  52  " 

Spruce  round-  wood  

18 

57 

16 

42 

Larch  body-wood  

24 

75 

22 

60 

Larch  round-wood  

18 

55 

Silver  fir  body-wood  

"20-28 

60-65 

19 

52 

Silver  fir  round-wood  

20 

50 

Alder  body-wood  

"'20  " 

so  " 

Alder  round-wood  

25 

54 

Alder  branches  

18 

37 

606.  In  laying-raeilers,  the  average  per  cent  of  the  coniferous 
woods  is  about  23  by  weight,  and  60  by  volume — and  for  beech  woods 
22  per  cent  of  weight,  and  50  by  volume. 


1  From  Fromme's  Austrian  Forest  Calendar,  1882,  p.  255,  upon  various 
authorities  there  cited. 


152  Preparation  of  Charcoal. 

607.  By  the  Dromart  Process  a  kiin  is  constructed  of  cast-iron 
plates  that  form  the  floor  and  sides,  and  may  te  set  up  and  taken 
down  from  time  to  time  as  it  becomes  desirable  to  change  ihe  site. 
Beneath  the  iron  floor  there  are  flues  leading  to  equi-distair.-  points 
in  the  bottom,  and  a  fire  is  kindled  externally  for  supplying  in  part 
the  heat  required  by  the  process.     There  are  air-holes  around  the 
side  and  a  chimney  at  the  top,  all  of  which  may  be  opened  or  closed 
at  will.     The  wood  is  set  up  endwise,  and  fills  the  entire  space.     In 
this,  as  in  all  other  kilns,  the  volatile  products  may  be  saved. 

608.  The  Moreau  Process  proposes  to  secure  carbonization  in  sheet- 
iron  receivers  of  cylindrical  or  prismatic  form,  and  capable  of  hold- 
ing a  cord  or  two  each.     They  are  filled  at  the  top  through  an  open- 
ing that  may  be  closely  sealed,  and  the  air  is  admitted  through 
perforated  tubes  from  below.     These  receivers  are  so  arranged  that 
several  may  be  attended  by  the  same  men  simultaneously,  some 
being  filled  or  emptied  while  the  others  are  at  work.     They  have 
no  bottom,  and  are  speedily  emptied  by  being  turned  over  on  their 
side.     It  is  claimed  that  they  afford  41  to  43  per  cent  in  volume, 
and  30  in  weight. 

609.  Charcoal  is  an  ingredient  in  gunpowder,  and  the  best  is 
made  from  the  alder  buckthorn  (Ithamnus  frangula) ,  although  the 
common  alder,  willow,  soft  maple,  hornbeam,  basswood,  and  poplar 
are  used.     It  is  best  prepared  in  iron  retorts,  in  which  the  heat  is 
applied  externally,  and  the  wood  should  be  peeled,  to  avoid  acci- 
dents from  the  ignition  by  sparks  from  sand  in  the  bark  in  manu- 
facture. 

610.  The  percentage  of  ash  in  woods,  as  a  rule,  decreases  as  well 
in  the  bark  as  the  wood,  from  below  upwards,  being  more  in  the 
branches  than  in  the  trunk,  and  most  in  the  twigs  and  leaves.     In 
coniferous  trees,  the  alkalies,  magnesia,  phosphoric  acid,  and   sul- 
phuric acid  in  various  combinations,  occur  most  in  the  needles,  and 
lime,  iron,  and  manganese  in  the  bark,  and  small  branches. 

611.  By  far  the  most  ashes  are  contained  in  the  cambium  and 
bark  bundles,  and  more  in  the  sap-wood  generally  than  in  the  heart- 
wood.     As  the  cellular  system  ceases  to  be  active,  it  appears  to  give 
up  its  alkali  and  phosphoric  acid  to  the  use  of  the  younger  forma- 
tions, and  thus  in  the  life-process  the  same  atoms  may  be  used  over 
and  again  in  the  same  tree. 

612.  It  follows,  from  this,  that  the  tree  when  young  requires  rela- 
tively more  food  than  when  old,  and  that  nurseries  exhaust  the  soil 


Eed  Charcoal— Distilled  Products  of  Wood.         153 

more  rapidly  in  proportion  than  a  forest  of  large  trees.  The  process 
of  assimilation  may  be  compared  to  that  observed  in  animal  life, 
where  the  structures  are  formed  in  early  life. 

Red  Charcoal. 

613.  About  1836,  a  method  was  introduced  in  France  for  semi- 
carbonizing  wood,  by  placing  it  in  chambers  at  the  mouths  of  fur- 
naces, and  exposing  it  to  a  heat  by  which  the  water  and  acetic  acid 
are  expelled,  and  the  combustible  gases  left.     This  product,  some- 
times called  "  torrified  wood,"  is  used  in  melting  pig-iron  for  cast- 
ing and  other  purposes.     It  ignites  freely,  does'  not  impair  by  keep- 
ing, and  burns  with  a  copious  flame  and  intense  heat.     It  is  said 
for  certain  purposes  to  afford  30  per  cent  more  of  heat  than  fully- 
burned  charcoal.      The  process  being  stopped   just  at  the  point 
where  carbonization  begins,  the  wood  retains  its  texture  and  ap- 
pearance ;  it  may  be  split,  cut,  or  sawed,  but  has  lost  its  strength, 
and  is  of  a  reddish  brown  color. 

Distilled  Products  of  Wood. 

614.  In  all  forms  of  kilns  the  volatile  products  may  be  condensed 
and  saved.  The  smoke  is  drawn  from  the  kilns  and  condensed.  The 
methylic  alcohol  or  wood- spirit  is  first  separated  by  distillation  ;  the 
residue  of  dilute  acetic  acid  is  then  neutralized  with  lime,  and 
evaporated  to  dryuess.     About  two  gallons  of  the  wood  spirit  are 
produced  from  the  smoke  of  a  cord  of  hard  wood,  and  when  puri- 
fied it  may  be  applied  to  all  chemical  uses  for  which  common  alco- 
hol is  employed,  but  chiefly  in  making  paints  and  varnishes.     After 
the  spirits  are  distilled  out,  the   residue,  with  lime  added,  yields 
about  200  pounds  to  the  cord.     It  is  chiefly  used  in  making  white 
lead. 

615.  Besides  these,  a  large  number  of  chemical  products  may  be 
derived  from  the  distillation  of  wood,  having  use  in  calico  printing, 
and   in  other  industries,  and  the  value  from  a  given  quantity  of 
wood  from  these  sources,  at  present  prices,  amounts  to  more  than 
twice  that  of  the  charcoal  made  at  the  same  time.     The  gases  re- 
maining in  this  process  have  not  much  illuminating  power,  but  are 
used  in  supplying  a  part  of  the  heat  required  for  the  evaporation. 


154  Wood  Gas— Forest  Fires. 

Illuminating  Gas  from  Wood. 

616.  It  is  found  that  wood  exposed  to  cherry-red  heat  in  close 
retorts,  yields  a  gas  which,   when   purified,   has   a  much  greater 
illuminating  power  than  the  best  obtained  from  coal.     In  this  way 
chips  and  other  waste  pieces  of  wood  have  been  turned  to  profitable 
account.     The  heat  in  this  process  must  be  carried  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  in  the  making  of  charcoal,  and  hence  the  residual  product 
is  of  inferior  quality.     The  different  kinds  of  wood  are  about  alike 
as  to  value  in  furnishing  gas  for  illumination,  the  quantity  averag- 
ing, in  eight  of  the  common  kinds,  about  582.35  cubic  feet  to  100 
pounds  of  wood. 

617.  The  condition  as  to  dryness,  however,  is  of  great  importance, 
since  the  vapor  of  water  coming  in  contact  with  the  incandescent 
charcoal  will  form  an  oxyde  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen,  that  will 
reduce  its  illuminating  power.     The  wood  should  therefore  be  dried 
as  much  as  possible  just  before  being  placed  in  the  retort,  or  else  it 
will  again  absorb  moisture  from  the  air. 

618.  Where  steam-power  is  used,  the  waste  steam  may  be  carried 
in  pipes  through  the  drying  chamber,  and  a  current  of  air  may  be 
driven  or  drawn  through  the  wood,  securing  the  requisite  degree 
of  dryness,  without  much  expense.     The  retorts  may  be  like  those 
for  coal  gas,  but  larger,  and  as  the  process  gives  the  best  result 
when  heated  rapidly,  the  furnaces  should  have  a  larger  amount  of 
grate  surface.     A  charge  is  worked  out  in  an  hour  and  a  half,  and 
the  charcoal  formed  is  at  the  end  drawn  out  into  sheet-iron  extin- 
guishers and  tightly  closed  for  cooling.     As  the  liquid  products  are 
corrosive  to  iron,  copper  pipes  must  be  used,  and  the  gas  must  be 
purified  before  being  used.1 

CHAPTER  XV. 

FOREST   FIEES. 

619.  There  is  no  subject  in  Forestry  more  important  than  the 
prevention  and  control  of  forest  fires.     They  every  year  do  a  vast 
amount  of  injury,  not  only  to  standing  timber  and  young  trees,  but 

1  Those  wishing;  to  look  further  into  this  subject,  will  find  detailed  informa- 
tion in  the  Forestry  Report  of  1877,  published  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, p.  133,  and  in  the  authorities  there  cited. 


Forest  Fires.  155 

to  fences,  bridges,  buildings,  farms  and  mill  property,  and  to  cord- 
wood,  lumber  and  bark  cut  in  readiness  for  market.  Not  only  this, 
they  sterilize  the  laud  by  burning  out  the  vegetable  mold,  so  that 
trees  can  not  be  made  to  grow  again,  until  in  some  degree  this  ma- 
terial is  restored  by  the  decayed  herbage,  and  the  fall  of  leaves  from 
an  undergrowth  of  bushes — a  process  which  requires  many  years 
to  accomplish. 

620.  Sometimes  the  fire  runs  from  tree  to  tree  in  the  tops,  instead 
of  spreading  along  the  ground,  as  in  the  great  Miramachi  fire  of 
New  Brunswick,  in  1825,  aud  the  Peshtigo  fire  of  Wisconsin,  in 
1871.  Upon  each  of  these  occasions,  many  hundred  human  lives 
were  lost.  The  Michigan  fires  of  1871  and  1881  were  memorable 
from  the  destruction  of  towns,  villages,  bridges,  and  farm  property 
that  they  occasioned. 

021.  In  the  great  fires  above  mentioned,  the  forests  had  been 
long  exposed  to  intense  solar  heat  and  to  drouth,  aud  vegetable 
matter  in  every  form  would  ignite  from  the  least  spark,  and  burn 
beyond  control.  The  currents  of  air  which  the  flames  excited,  be- 
came furious  gales  of  wind,  and  swept  every  thing  before  them  in  a 
tornado  of  fire. 

622.  Without  giving  historical  or  statistical  details,  we  will  pre- 
sent the  subjects  under  the  three  heads  of  causes,  prevention  and 
control. 

(1.)  Causes  of  Forest  Fires. 

623.  These  fires  generally  originate  from  the  following  causes, 
and  somewhat  in  order  of  importance  as  here  placed : 

(a.)  From  fires  that  escape  in  the  clearing  of  lauds,  and  the  burn- 
ing off  of  brush  and  stubble  in  preparing  the  ground  for  cultivation. 

(b.)  From  sparks  and  coals  of  locomotives  along  lines  of  railroad. 

(c.)  From  fires  purposely  set  to  improve  pasturage,  upon  moun- 
tains and  in  marshy  grounds.  This  is  a  very  common  practice  in 
the  Southwestern  and  Southern  States,  the  fires  being  often  set  by 
persons  who  do  not  own  the  land,  to  afford  grazing  to  their  few 
head  of  cattle,  upon  lands  not  their  own. 

(d.)  From  fires  carelessly  left  by  persons  camping,  hunting  or 
fishing,  and  by  tramps. 

(e.)  From  the  careless  use  of  matches,  that  are  thrown  down  and 
not  extinguished,  or  from  tobacco-pipes,  cigars,  or  gun- wads. 


156  Forest  Fires. 

(/.)  From  fires  that  escape  from  coal-pits  and  other  operations 
carried  on  in  the  woods. 

(</.)  From  malicious  design. 

(/i.)  From  natural  causes,  such  as  lightning,  friction  between 
dry  wood  in  high  winds,  and  spontaneous  combustion. 

(2.)  Prevention  of  Forest  Fires. 

624.  A  constant  vigilance  in  the  use  of  fire,  and  in  extinguishing 
every  spark,  when  left,  and  proper  care  in  the  clearing  away  of  all 
combustible  materials  around  the  place  where  a  fire  is  kindled  in  or 
near  a  woodland,  would  render  every  other  prevention  almost  need- 
less.    The  danger  from  fires  should  be  thoroughly  impressed  upon 
every  one,  and  especially  upon  children,  at  home  and  at  school,  so 
that  they  may  grow  up  with  careful  habits  in  this  respect. 

625.  A  kind  of  safety-match  is  made  in  immense  quantities  in 
Sweden,  and  is  used  extensively  throughout  Europe.     It  can  not  be 
ignited  except  when  rubbed  upon  a  surface  that  is  chemically  pre- 
pared, and  that  is  placed  upon  one  side  of  the  box  in  which  they 
are  sold.     The  use  of  matches  prepared  like  these,  and  the  habit  of 
extinguishing   them  when    lighted,  would   prevent  accidents  from 
this  cause.     Gun-wads  are  also  made  that  will  not  burn,  and  that 
are  entirely  safe  as  to  retaining  fire. 

626.  The  risk  of  fire  from  locomotives  may  be  largely  diminished 
by  the  use  of  spark-extinguishers  and  other  arrangements,  many  of 
which  have  been  patented.     The  law  in  most  states  renders  rail- 
road companies  responsible  for  the  damages  that  they  may  cause, 
and  this  law  rigidly  enforced  would  greatly  tend  to  the  exercise 
of  more  care  in  this  respect.    As  a  further  precaution,  the  leaves 
and  rubbish  along  railroads  should  be  raked  off  and  burned,  at  a 
time  when  the  fires  can  be  managed.     Piles  of  old  decaying  ties 
should  be  removed.     Belts  of  timber,  less  inflammable  than  pines, 
should  be  planted  along  railroads  that  run  through   pine  forests, 
and  railroads  should  be  patrolled  in  ^a  dry  time,  for  the  purpose  of 
extinguishing  the  fires  that  may  be  set,  before  damages  are  done. 

627.  In  regions  where  fires  are  exceedingly  liable  to  occur,  the 
burning  off  of  belts  of  land  in  winter,  when  the  fires  do  not  spread 
beyond  control,  and  need  some  help  to  burn  at  all,  is  a  safe  precau- 
tion;  such  fires,  however,  injure  the  young  trees,  and  they  should 
be  allowed  to  extend  no  more  than  necessary. 


Forest  Fires.  157 

628.  Damages  from  prairie  fires  are  best  prevented  by  plowing 
a  few  furrows  in  parallel  lines,  fifty  or  a  hundred  feet  apart,  and 
burning  off  the  grass  between,  soon  after  it  is  killed  down  by  frost, 
and  before  it  is  very  dry.     This  practice  along  the  sides  of  railroads 
in  a  prairie  region,  is  excellent. 

629.  In  Europe,  fire-guards  are  made  through  the  woods,  by 
clearing  away  all  trees  and  all  matter  that  can  burn,  in  belts  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  feet  wide.     To  be  effectual,  they  must  be  cleaned 
out  every  year  or  two.     If  such  belts  were  planted  with  deciduous 
trees,  that  do  not  take  fire  so  readily  as  conifers,  they  would  afford 
some  protection,  but  not  as  much  as  the  bare  soil. 

630.  Common  roads  answer  the  same  end,  and  in  a  region  liable 
to  fires,  they  should  be  wide  and  the  sides  well  cleared.    The  French 
Ordinance  of  Waters  and  Forests  (1669),  prescribed  that  public 
roads  through  forests  should  be  at  least  seventy-two  feet  wide,  and 
that  all  thorns  and  bushes  within  sixty  feet  should  be  cleared  off 
on  each  side. 

631.  Avenues  through  a  forest  present  the  unavoidable  disad- 
vantage of  exposing  the  timber  to  the  winds.     This  effect  is  greatest 
in  heavy-topped  hemlocks,  etc.,  and  least  where  the  woodland  has 
grown  up  with  the  space  reserved,  as  the  branches  of  the  trees  on 
the  outside  are  then  strong,  and  extend  lower  down,  affording  much 
resistance  to  the  wind. 

632.  Where  streams  of  water  flow  through  nearly  level  wood- 
lands, they  mny  sometimes  be  raised  by  dams,  so  as  to  form  a  series 
of  narrow  ponds  for  long  distances,  that  would  check  all  ground- 
fires.     Stone  walls,  mounds  of  earth,  and  cactus-hedges  afford  some 
protection. 

633.  Our  state  laws  should  provide  for  the  designation  of  some 
existing  officer,  or  the  election  of  some  special  officer,  who  should 
have  authority  to  call  out  help  for  extinguishing  forest  fires.     Such 
men  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  their  districts,  and  with  all 
lines  of  defense  that  can  be  used  to  oppose  an  advancing  fire.     Per- 
sons when  thus  called  upon,  should  be  liable  to  a  fine  if  they  refuse 
to  assist  without  reasonable  excuse. 

634.  Laws  rendering  all  persons  responsible  for  the  damages  that 
miy  be   done  from  fires  that  they  set,  whether  carelessly  or  in- 
tentionally, should  be  enacted  and  enforced.     In  Pennsylvania  they 
have  a  law  rendering  the  counties  responsible  for  the  expenses  in 


158  Forest  Fires. 

hiring  men  to  extinguish  fires,  and  it  should  be  adopted  generally. 
If  farmers  found  that  they  might  have  taxes  to  pay  for  damages 
done  by  this  cause,  they  would  be  very  careful  in  burning  their 
fallows,  and  in  seeking  to  prevent  it  from  being  done  carelessly  by 
others. 

635.  A  ground-fire  that  runs  through  a  young  plantation  of  ash, 
oak,  catalpa,  and  other  deciduous  trees,  may  kill  down  the  tops,  and 
apparently  destroy  them  entirely.     We  should  not  give  them  up  as 
ruined,  for  they  will  often  sprout  from  the  roots,  and  grow  as  vigor- 
ously as  before.     The  most  that  can  be  done  in  such  cases,  is  to  cut 
off'  the  old  stems  and  all  but  the  thriftiest  of  the  new  ones.     As  for 
the  old  one,  it  only  does  harm  by  preventing  its  place  from  healing 
over.     Several  small  growing  sprouts  from  one  root  are  not  so  de- 
sirable as  one  strong  one. 

636.  In  humid  climates,  and  in  damp  grounds,  the  undergrowth 
sometimes  comes  in  so  as  to  cover  the  surface,  to  the  injury  of  the 
growth   of  the   trees.1     It.  is   necessary,   in   order   to   secure   the 
greatest  benefit,  to  clear  out  the  bushes  and  ground-herbage  and 
burn  it.     For  this  purpose  the  material,  after  being  pulled  up,  is 
best  arranged  in  piles,  at  some  distance  from  the  trees,  covering 
it  with   sod   before   setting   it  on   fire.     By  avoiding  a  dry  time, 
this  can  be  done  safely,  as  the  fire  will  smolder  away,  with  much 
smoke  and  little  flame,  until  the  whole  is  reduced  to  ashes.     These 
are  then  spread  over  the  ground,  tending  to  renew  its  fertility. 
The  larvae  of  many  kinds  of  insects  that  find  shelter  in  the  litter, 
are  by  this  means  destroyed. 

(3.)  Control  of  Forest  Fires. 

637.  Among  the  means  employed  for  stopping  the  progress  of  a 
forest   fire  when  started,  the  following   are  the   most   important: 
Throwing  water  and  wetting  a  line  of  ground  ;  sand  and  soil  thrown 
upon  the  edge  of  a  line  of  fire  will  sometimes  do  almost  as  well ; 
the  fire  may  be  whipped  out  with  green  bushes ;  the  rubbish  may 
be  raked  away  toward  the  advancing  fire  and  burned :  and  some- 
times furrows  may  be  plowed,  to  present  a  line  of  fresh  earth. 

638.  Back-firing,  consists  in  setting  a  fire  commencing  along  some 
road,  stream  of  water,  wall,  or  other  line  where  its  spread  in  one 

1  In  French  Forestry  this  undergrowth  is  called  "bois  mort"  literally  "dead 
wood." 


Forest  Fires — Other  In  juries.  159 

direction  may  be  prevented,  and  allowing  this  fire  to  run  till  it 
meets  the  principal  fire.  Great  fires  sometimes  cause  an  inward 
current  of  air  that  favors  back-firing.  As  fires  advance  down  hill 
more  slowly  than  they  ascend,  the  counter-fires  may  often  be  set  to 
best  advantage  at  the  bottom  of  a  valley.  The  crest  of  a  ridge  is, 
however,  a  much  better  line  of  defense. 

639.  After  a  fire  has  apparently  been  brought  under  control,  it 
should  be  carefully  watched  until  it  is  entirely  extinguished.     If 
neglected  it  will  sometimes  get  under  way  with  more  energy  than 
before,  even  some  days  or  weeks  afterwards.     On  a  rocky  surface, 
full  of  deep  fissures,  there  is  very  great  danger  to  be  dreaded  from 
these  concealed  fires,  that  may  smolder  unobserved  for  a  long  time. 

640.  It  is  always  a  safe  precaution  to  have  water,  buckets,  spades, 
axes,  etc. ,  in  readiness  for  use  in  case  of  fires.     In  some  regions  in 
Europe,  a  system  of  signals  is  arranged,  and  persons  are  on  watch 
from  towers  on  high  hills,  for  the  special  purpose  of  discovering 
fires,  and  making  known  their  locality.     A  system  of  telegraphic 
signals,  consisting  of  willowr-baskets  by  day,  and  of  lanterns  by 
night,  has  been  proposed  in  Spain  for  this  use,  and  by  a  simple  com- 
bination representing  numbers,  a  correspondent  may  receive  a  great 
variety  of  messages  in  a  brief  space  of  time,  by  the  aid  of  books  in 
which  these  messages  are  referred  to  by  corresponding  numbers. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

PROTECTION   FROM   OTHER  INJURIES   THAN   FIRES. 

641.  A  young  woodland  needs  protection  even  more  than  a  grain- 
field,  because  the  injuries  done,  may  destroy  the  growth  of  several 
years  instead  of  one.     These  damages  may  be  done  by  wild  or  do- 
mestic animals,  or  by  insects ;  or  they  may  be  caused  by  disease,  by 
storms  of  wind,  by  the  obstruction  of  water-courses  that  may  over- 
flow level  lauds,  and  in  various  other  ways,  many  of  which  can  be 
prevented  or  removed. 

Pasturage  of  Woodlands. 

642.  In  European  governments,  the  rights  of  pasturage  in  the 
public  woodlands  are  regulated  by  law,  and  sometimes  they  are 
sold,  for  one  year  at  a  time,  at  public  auction.     In  many  cases  it  is 
a  common  right,  subject  to  regulation  by  the  local  government. 


160  Injuries  from  Animals. 

The  practice  "is  forbidden  altogether  in  young  woods.,  until  the 
growth  has  reached  a  size  that  would  prevent  injury  from  being 
done. 

648.  As  a  general  rule,  sheep  and  goats  do  much  more  harm  than 
horses  and  cattle,  and  in  some  countries  they  are  altogether  ex- 
cluded at  all  times.  The  fattening  of  swine  upon  acorns  and  nuts 
is  considered  of  no  injury  to  large  trees.  The  pasturage  of  steep 
mountain  slopes  is  much  more  injurious  than  upon  level  land,  and 
has  tended  to  produce  immense  injuries  by  exposing  the  soil  to 
erosions,  as  elsewhere  more  fully  noticed. 

644.  It  is  an  admirable  practice  to  plant  groves  of  trees  in  pas- 
ture grounds,  to  provide  shade  for  stock,  but  such  groves  must  be 
protected  by  fences  until  the  foliage  is  above  the  reach  of  cattle, 
and  the  trunks  of  the  trees  are  so  large  that  they  would  not  be  liable 
to  injury. 

Injuries  to  Seeds,  Seedlings,  and  Trees,  by  wild  Animals. 

645.  In  noticing  the  agencies  for  the  distribution  of  seeds,  we 
have  elsewhere  given  credit  to  birds,  and  especially  to  squirrels,  as 
planters  [§  125].     We  must,  however,  guard  against  the  latter,  in 
keeping  nuts  in  heaps  for  spring  planting.     The  liability  to  injury 
by  moles  and  mice  in  winter,  is  a  principal  reason  for  our  delaying 
to  plant  nuts,  acorns,  and  other  seeds  till  spring,  instead  of  planting 
in  the  fall,  as  is  done  in  nature.     [§  130.] 

646.  These  animals  do  injuries  to  nurseries  and  plantations  in 
winter,  especially  when  the  snows  are  deep.     Rabbits  are  very  fond 
of  gnawing  the  bark  from  young  trees,  and  where  these  animals  are 
kept,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  their  injuries  by  stone  walls, 
laid  from  below  the  reach  of  their  burrows,  or  by  wire  screens. 

647.  Fruit  and  shade  trees  may  be  protected  by  binding  tarred 
paper  around  the  trunks  near  the  ground,  and  by  treading  down 
the  snows  around  them  in  winter.     Hedgehogs  will  feed  upon  the 
bark  and  twigs  of  the  hemlock  in  winter,  and  certain  birds  may  do 
injury  to  trees  by  biting  off  the  buds. 

648.  The  gopher  (Geomys  bursarius)  is  one  of  the  most  trouble- 
some pests  in  the  Western  States,  from  its  eating  off  the  roots  of 
young  trees;  and  a  single  animal  has  been  known  to  follow  a  line 
of  newly  set  osage  orange  hedge,  in  the  soil  soft  from  recent  plant- 
ing, and  destroy  the  roots  for  many  rods.     They  may  be  poisoned 


Birds  that  Destroy  Pine  Seeds — Insect 

by  placing  strychnine  or  arsenic  in  a  carrot,  apple,  o"r  a  potato  near 
where  their  burrows  come  to  the  surface — but  caution  should  be 
taken  in  the  use  of  these  dangerous  poisons. 

649.  In  parks  and  forests  where  game  is  protected,  there  is  some- 
times much  sacrificed  from  their  propensity  to  gnaw  and  rub.     Deer 
are  as  destructive  to  the  herbage  of  young  trees  as  sheep  or  goats. 
In  Europe,  it  is  customary  to  feed  hay  and  turnips  to  herbivorous 
game  in  winter. 

650.  In  sowing  pine  seeds,  it  becomes  necessary  to  guard  against 
some  of  the  gramnivorous  birds,  who  seein  to  be  attracted,  as  if  by 
instinct,  to  the  feast.     The  white-throated  and  white-crowned  spar- 
rows, appear  to  be  particularly  fond  of  these  seeds,  and  after  the 
young  shoots  have  come  up,  they  become  dainty  food  for  the  com- 
mon yellow-bird.     The  best  remedy  against  these  birds,  is  a  thin 
covering  of  marsh-grass  or  of  fine  brush,  care  being  taken  that  it 
does  not  smother  the  young  plants.     A  better  one  would  be  an  old 
seine,  suspended  upon  poles  a  few  inches  above  the  seed-beds  in  the 
nursery. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

INSECT  RAVAGES  IN  WOODLANDS. 

651.  Our  limits  do  not  permit  more  than  a  general  notice  of  the 
damages  done  to  trees  from  insects.     They  begin  with  the  seed — are 
found  in  the  young  shoot,  and  in  the  bark  or  wood  of  the  roots, 
trunk  and  branches,  at  every  stage  of  growth — in  the  leaves,  the 
blossoms,  and  the  ripening  fruit.     They  sometimes  appear  in  small 
numbers,  and  every  year  alike,  and  at  others  they  increase  in  im- 
mense number,  and  either  progressively  or  simultaneously  destroy 
every  thing  before  them. 

652.  Among  those  most  systematic  in  their  movements  is  the 
processionary  caterpillar,  shown  in  the  annexed  engravings,  copied 
from  De  la  Blauchere.1  The  moth  appears  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber, and  for  some  days  remains  motionless  under  the  leaves  and 
branches,  flying  only  in  the  twilight.  The  female  lays  some 
two  hundred  eggs  upon  the  bark,  and  from  these  the  worms  soon 
hatch  out.  They  live  together  in  a  common  net,  often  changing 
their  abode  till  the  third  moult,  when  they  set  out  in  the  evening 

lLes  Havacjeurs  des  P'orets,  et  des  Arbres  (F Aligncment,  \.  170. 


162 


Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 


81.  Female  Moth  of  the  Bombyx  pro 
cessionea 


80.  Bombyx  processioned.— (The  Procession ary  Caterpillar.) 

in  an  5rderly  march — first  one,  then 
two,   three,  and  f  >ur  abreast,  and    so 
widening  by  one  at  every  rank,  in  solid 
triangular  phalanx,  and  in  immense 
legions.       When  there  are   no   more 
oak  leaves  to  destroy,  they  consume 
the  undergrowth,  and  they  do  not 
fail  to  take  harvests  and  gardens 
before  them.    The  hirsute  append- 
ages with  which  they  are  covered 
cause    irritating    inflammations 
when  in  contact  with   the   naked 
skin   or   a    mucous    surface,    and 
neither  man  nor  beast  can  remain 
in  a  forest  when  they  are  abroad. 
653.  Against  enemies  like  these 
man  is   scarcely   able   to   defend 
himself,    but   there    are    enemies 
82.  Caiosoma.  a  Carnivorous  Beetle,  de-  that  also  appear  abundantly  when 

structive  to  the  Processionarv  Caterpil-  ,*,  f      -,     1  -,  ., 

lar.  their   food    becomes    plenty,  that 


Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 


163 


tend  to  limit  these  injuries.  One  of  these  is 
a  carnivorous  beetle,  that  hatches  out  at  about 
the  same  time.  Although  they  have  -wings, 
they  attack  them  on  the  ground,  and  mount 
upon  the  trees  to  seize  their  prey. 

654.  Usually    beetles   of  the  general   form 
shown  in  the  foregoing  engraving,  with   long 
sharp  jaws  and  very  rapid  movements,  belong 
to  the  carnivorous  class.     Something  may  be 
done  to  prevent  the  injuries  of  the  worms  above 
described,  by  scraping  off  the  eggs  from  the 
bark.     They  are  always  deposited  on  the  out- 
side trees  of  a  forest,  and  never  within  it. 

655.  Of  bark-boring  insects  the  conifers  have 
an  unusually  large  share,  there  being,  perhaps, 
no  species  that  is  entirely  free  from  their  rav- 
ages.    They  are    sometimes  very  symmetrical 
in  their  work,  the  bark,  externally,  showing  a 
row  of  holes  at  equal  intervals,  and,  between 
the  wood  aud  bark,  burrows  running  sometimes 
horizontally,   at  other   times  vertically   or  ob- 
liquely, with  numerous  branching  burrows  that 
seldom  or  never  run  into  one  another,  however 
nearly  they  may  approach. 

650.    The    main    stem   of  these   burrows  is 
made  by  the  parent -insect,  who,  as   she   ad- 
vances, deposits. her  eggs  on  the  sides.     From 
these  the  larvae  hatch,  and,  because  small,  the 
passage  which  they  make  is  at  first  narrow.     It 
widens  as  they  grow  in  size,  and  at  the  end  may 
expand  into  a  little  chamber.     When  the  worm  { 
has  finished  this  stage  of  its  growth,  it  becomes 
a  pupa,  and  finally  eats  out  into  the  open  air,  as  a  perfect   insect. 
It<  natural  size  is  shown  by  the  side  of  the  above  engraving. 

657.  The  immense  numbers  in  which  these  insects  appear  in  some 
years,  render  their  ravages  very  destructive,  and  as  they  often  pro- 
duce two  broods  in  a  year,  a  single  insect  may,  in  three  or  four 
seasons,  when  the  increase  is  not  checked,  multiply  in  enormous 
quf-utities. 


Insect  Ravages  under 
the  Bark  of  Trees. 


164  Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 

658.  As  a  general  rule,  these  bark-boring  insects  are  most  liable 
to  attack  fallen  timber,  and  especially  that  which  has  been  over- 
thrown by  storms  in  the  season  of  active  vegetation,  or  trees  that 
have  had  their  vitality  weakened  from  being  scorched  by  fire. 


659.  The  damage  done  to  logs  cut  for  lumber  may  be  lessened  by 

taking  off  the  bark  as 
soon  as  the  trees  are 
felled.  The  above  en- 
gravings represent  an  en- 
larged view  of  one  of 
these  bark-insects,  with 
the  form  of  its  burrows, 
and  the  insect  of  its  nat- 
ural size. 

660.  With  respect  to 
wood-boring  insects,  the 
amount  of  injury  done  to 
the  timber  depends  upon 

the  uses  to  which  it  is  to 
Of0ak'bya  be  applied.     If  slight>  it 


Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands, 


165 


87.  Cavities  made  in  Fallen  Timber  by  the 
Larvae  of  Insects,  tending  to  rapidly 
hasten  its  Decay. 


may  still  be  good  for  car- 
pentry, but  improper  for 
coopers'  use ;  if  the  bur- 
rows are  large,  they  tend 
to  admit  moisture,  and  to 
become  great  open  cavi- 
ties, and  in  certain  other 
cases  the  wood  is  so  eaten 
that  it  becomes  nothing 
but  a  shell — perhaps  sound 
and  without  the  least  ap- 
pearance of  injury  exter- 
nally, but  wholly  eaten 
out  into  caverns  within. 

661.  These  wood-eating 
insects  are  especially  com- 
mon   in    decaying    wood, 
and  where  they  are  strict- 
ly limited  to  this,  they  can 
scarcely  be   considered  as 
of   great   injury,    and    in 
some   cases   they   may  be 
even  beneficial,  in  hasten- 
ing its  decay. 

662.  There    are    other 
classes    of   insects    found 
upon  wood  and  leaves,  and 
even   in    burrows   in   the 
wood   and  bark,  that  are 
predatory  in  their  habits, 
pursuing  other  insects  and 
destroying  them,  either  in 
the  perfect  state,  or  as  lar- 
vae,   or    by    feeding    upon  8S.  Wood  that  has  been  thoroughly  ruined  by  the 
their  G^o-s.  Larvae  of  the  Cerambyx  licros. 

fee*"* 

6621  These  carnivorous  insects  are  the  surest  agency  for  counter- 
acting the  inordinate  increase  of  the  injurious  kinds,  and  when  the 
latter  multiply  to.  undue  extent,  the  abundance  of  food  thus  offered 
leads  to  their  increase  also,  until  the  balance  of  nature  is  again  re- 


166  Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 

stored.  We  here  present  a  cut  of  the  larva  of  the  great  Capricorn 
beetle;  that  which  sometimes  proves  destructive  to  the  oak,  and 
that  causes  the  damages  shown  in  the  last  preceding  engraving. 


89.  Larva  of  the  Cerambyx  heros. 

These  insects  require  three  years  for  their  transformations,  and  do 
not  usually  attack  the  timber  until  it  has  passed  its  stage  of  full 
maturity  and  has  begun  to  decline,  but  while  the  wood  is  still  hard 
and  sound.  The  Capricorn  beetles  to  which  this  insect  belongs,  are 
among  the  most  destructive  of  wood-borers  ;  some  inhabiting  the 
trunks  of  trees,  and  some  only  the  limbs.  There  are  other  insects 
that  devour  the  pith  or  the  roots,  and  some  are  found  only  in 
herbaceous  plants. 

663.  The  insects  that  burrow  under  the  bark,  or  that  mine  into 
the  wood,  are  sometimes  very  systematic  in  their  operations,  and 
this  symmetry  may  all  be  due  to  the  work  of  one  insect,  that  de- 
posits her  eggs  at  equal  intervals  along  the  burrow.  These,  upon 
hatching  into  larvae,  eat  their  way  from  the  main  burrow,  sometimes 
to  but  a  short  distance,  and  without  enlargement  at  the  end,  and  at 


90.  Cross-section  showing  the  Burrows  of  the  Bostrichus 


other  times  widening  as  they  gain  in  size,  till  they  reach  their  limit 
of  growth,  and  then,  after  completing  their  transformations,  they 


Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 


167 


91.  Vertical  Section  through 
the  Burrows  of  the  Hostrichus 
lineatus. 


emerge  through  holes  eaten  in  the  bark,  and  come  forth  as  perfect 
insects. 

664.  Climatic  vicissitudes  have  great 
influence   upon    the   multiplication  or 
decrease  in  the  number  of  insects.     A 
very  hot  and  dry  season  may  favor  an 
increase,  or  an  unusually  cold,  wet,  and 
backward  one  may  destroy  them. 

665.  Insectivorous    birds   do   much 
to  keep  injurious  insects  in  check,  and 
where  there  is  an  abundance  of  this 
food,  they  will  sometimes    appear  in 
great  numbers.     The  presence  of  these 
birds  is  therefore  to  be  encouraged ; 
and  as  groves  and  belts  of  timber  are 

multiplied,  the  conditions  favoring  their  coming  and  sojourn,  to  the 
benefit  of  our  grain  and  fruits,  are  increased.  For  these  reasons 
they  should  be  strongly  protected  by  efficient  game  laws,  and  by 
public  sentiment,  against  their  destruction,  or  the  disturbance  of 
their  nests. 

665J.  In  some  countries,  as  in  France,  the  importance  of  protect- 
ing birds  is  taught  in  the  schools,  and  the  children  are  shown  how 
to  distinguish  the  useful  kinds  of  birds,  small  animals,  reptiles,  and 
insects  from  those  that  are  injurious,  and  the  best  means  for  pro- 
tecting the  former,  and  of  destroying  the  latter.  Little  "  Protec- 
tion Societies"  are  organized  among  the  children,  for  preventing  in- 
juries to  birds  and  their  nests,  and  various  means  are  devised  to 
impress  the  young  with  correct  ideas  concerning  the  interests 
depending  upon  the  allies  of  the  field. 

666.  In  nurseries,  gardens,  orchards,  and  parks,  we  may  some- 
times adopt  measures  for  the  destruction  of  insects,  when  they  ap- 
pear in  unusual  number,  by  some  kind  of  poisons,  such  as  Paris- 
green,  London-purple,  white-hellibore,  etc.,  but  where  they  invade' 
a  whole  forest,  and  especially  when  they  occur  in  regions  remote 
from  settlements,  we  can  do  nothing,  and  must  await  the  operation 
of  natural  causes  for  restoring  the  balance,  through  the  natural 
agencies  of  climate  and  the  antagonism  in  insect  life. 

667.  In  some  countries  this  can  b'e  done  by  costly  methods,  such 
as  cutting  down  the  infected  trees,  and  burning  the  tops  and  the 


168  Insect  Ravages  in  Woodlands. 

bark.  But  these  heroic  remedies  are  practically  m  uch  beyond  our 
means  for  successful  application  in  a  large  way.  Fortunately  these 
great  invasions  do  not  last  many  years  in  succession.  They  may 
leave  a  wide-spread  ruin  behind  them,  but  some  other  species  of 
timber  tree  with  fewer  insect  enemies  will  come  on  to  supply  the 
place ;  and  generally  the  timber  killed  may  still  be  used  for  lumber 
or  fuel,  if  cut  within  a  year  or  two  afterwards.  In  the  case  of 
timber  bored  into  cavities,  of  course  the  value  is  greatly  impaired 
for  many  uses,  and  its  decay  is  generally  hastened  by  these  causes. 
668.  Where  the  tree  survives  the  injury  of  an  insect  year,  the 
eifect  is  generally  seen  in  the  diminished  growth 
of  that  season.  We  have  seen  in  the  Museum  of  a 
School  of  Forestry,  a  section  of  a  tree  some  hun- 
dreds of  years  old,  in  which  for  long  periods  to- 
gether every  third  ring  of  growth  was  narrow,  as 
we  see  in  one  of  the  rings  in  the  annexed  engrav- 
ing. This  was  caused  by  the  eating  off  of  the 
leaves  every  third  year  by  a  caterpillar. 

669.  If  the  leading  shoot  of  a  young  conifer  is 
eaten   off  by  insects,   or  killed   from   any  other 
92jm:i?sCfo°tfhc  Leaves J  cause,  its  growth  is  checked  until  another,  and 
Growth^  Wood""1  sometimes  two  shoots  are  formed  in  its  place.  This 
gives  a  defective  form,  and  injures  its  value.     In 
a   lawn  or  nursery,  this  damage  may  be  repaired  by  herbaceous 
grafting   from  the  terminal   shoot  of   another  tree,   as   elsewhere 
described. 

670.  The  damages  done  by  insects  to  a  forest  are  sometimes  im- 
mense.    In   recent  years   the  spruce   timber  in   New  Brunswick, 
Maine,  and  Northern  New  York  has  been  thus  destroyed  to  the.  ex- 
tent of  millions  of  dollars  in  value. 

671.  Kaltenbach,   an   approved   European-  writer  upon  Forest 
Entomology,  enumerates  537  species  of  insects  injurious  to  the  oaks, 
107  to  the  elms,  264  to  the  poplars,  3.')6  to  the  willows,  270  to  the 
birches,  119  to  the  alder,  154  to  the  beech,  97  to  the  hazelnut,  and 
88  to  the  hornbeam.     Of  coniferous  trees,  the  pines,  spruces,  larch, 
and  firs  are  fed  upon  by  299  species,  and  the  junipers  by  33. 

672.  In  the  United  States,   while  many  observers   have   given 
their  attention  to  this  branch  of  natural  history,  much  still  remains 
to  be  known  upon  this  subject,  especially  as  relates  to  the  geograph- 


Classification  of  Insects :  Coleoptera.  169 

ical  range  of  species,  their  migrations,   the  causes  that  favor  or 
hinder  their  increase,  and  the  means  for  diminishing  their  damages. 

673.  In  a  recent  publication  of  the  U.  S.  Entomological  Com- 
mission, prepared  by  Prof.  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,1 
there  has  been  collected  a  summary  of  all  that  had  been  previously 
published  concerning  the  forest-insects  of  the  United  States.     We 
will  present  some  of  the  more  important  facts  of  this  Report,  con- 
cerning the  more  injurious  of  these  insects.     As  it  will  be  necessary 
to  refer  to  the  orders  under  which  insects  are-  classed,  they  may  be 
first  concisely  defined : 

(1.)  COLEOPTERA  (Beetles). 

674.  These  are  insects  with  jaws,  two  thick  wing-covers,  in  a 
straight  line  on  the  top  of  the  back,  with  two  filmy-wings,  which  are 
folded  transversely.      They  pass  through  four  stages  of  life — the 
egg,  the  larvge  or  grubs  (generally  provided  with  six  legs),  the  pupa, 
and  the  perfect  insect.     In  most  cases  the  greatest  damage  is  done 
in  the  larva  state.     The  coleoptera  are  divided  into  several  great 
divisions,  the  principal  of  which  are  as  follows : 

675.  (a.)  The  Searabceidce,  embracing  an  immense  number  of 
species,  known  as  ground  or  dung-beetles,  tree-beetles,  etc.     Their 
larvae  do  great  damages  to  the  roots  of  trees,  and  the  perfect  in- 
sects to  the  leaves  and  twigs.     They  fly  in  the  evening,  and  may  be 
destroyed  to  some  extent  by  shaking  them  off  from  the  trees  in  the 
morning,  first  spreading  cloths  before  jarring  the  trees. 

676.  (6.)  The  Lucanidce,  or  stag-beetles,  which  are  distinguished 
by  the  great  size  and  peculiar  form  of  their  upper  jaws.     The  grubs 
of  the  larger  kinds  are  said  to  remain  six  years  before  changing  to 
a  perfect  insect.     They  live  in  the  trunks  and  roots  of  trees,  and 
bore  into  the  solid  wood. 

677.  (c.)  The  Bupestridce,  or  saw-horned  beetles,  so  called  because 
the  tips  of  the  joints  of  their  antennae  project  more  or  less  on  the 
inside,  somewhat  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw.     They  are  often  brightly 
colored,  and  have  usually  a  hard  shell  and  an  oblong  form,  tapering 
behind.     They  keep  concealed  at  night,  and  are  abroad  only  by 

1  Bulletin  No.  7.  Insects  Injurious  to  Forest  and  Shnde  Trees,  1881,  p.  275. 
This  Commission  consists  of  Professors  Charles  V.  Eiley,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  "WRshington,  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, Providence,  and  Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas,  of  Carbondale,  111. 


170 


Classification  of  Insects:  Colcoptcra. 


day.  The  larvce  are  wood-borers,  and  chiefly  attack  forest  and 
fruit  trees  that  are  past  their  prime.  The  pine  and  hickory  trees 
especially  suffer  from  their  ravages.  Their  larvae  are  long,  rather 
flat,  yellowish  white,  and  widened  near  the  forward  part.  The 
head  itself  is  small,  and  provided  with  teeth  for  boring.  They  in- 


93.  Milolontha  vulgaris  (Male  and  Female). 

elude  the  flat-headed  larvae  found  under  the  bark  and  in  the  wood 
of  our  fruit  trees,  and  may  to  some  extent  be  kept  out  by  surround' 
ing  the  trunks  with  tarred  paper,  and  by  soaping,  white-washing, 
and  cutting  out,  or  by  seeking  and  destroying  the  perfect  injects. 

678.  (d.)  The  Elatcridcv,  or  spring-beetles,  are  most  destructive  to 
wood  and  roots  in  the  larva  state.  They  are  sometimes  called  wire 
Worms,  and  some  are  wood-eaters,  living  under  the  bark;  and  in  the 


Classification  of  Insects:  Colcoptera. 


171 


trunks  of  old  trees.  The  timber-beetles,  so  destructive  in  ship- 
yards, belong  to  this  division.  The  foregoing  beetles,  although 
differing  greatly  in  form  and  habitst  agree  in  one  character,  viz., 
their  feet  are  five-jointed,  while  those  that  follow  are  four-jointed. 

679.  (e.)  The  Rhi/)ichophoridce,  or  weevils,  mostly  of  very  small  size, 
so  destructive  to  grains,  and  upon  trees,  boring  into  the  bark,  leaves, 
buds,  fruit,  and  seeds,  and  feeding  upon  the  juices  and  soft  parts 
therein.     They  .are  day-insects,  and  love  to  come  out  in  the  sun- 
shine.    Some  fly  well,  but  others  have  no  wings,  and  generally  they 
are  slow  and  timid  in  their  motions.     The  weevils  are  divided  into 
several  great  families,  and  include  an  immense  number  of  species. 

680.  (/.)  The  ScolytidcR,  or  cylindrical  bark-beetles,  mostly  very 
small,  but  often  doing  the  most  serious  injuries,  especially  in  pine 
and  spruce  forests,  by  mining  under  the  bark,  and  boring  galleries 
in  the  new  wood. 

681.  ((jr.)  The  Bostrichidce — formerly  classed  with  the  preceding, 
but  now  separately.     They  are  often  of  large  size,  and  especially  in 
tropical  countries,  they  may  prove  very  destructive.     Their  larvae 
bore  galleries  in  the  solid  wood  of  living  trees. 


94    Botttrichun  typo-          95.  Burrows  of  the  Bostrichttt   typngrnphicus  under  the 
praphic.us  (greatly  Bark  of  the  Spruce,  with  the  Insects  of  the  Natural 

enlarged/.  Size. 

682.  Two  nearly  allied  species  of  the  Bostrychus  have  proved  very 
destructive  to  spruce  forests  in  Europe.  They  are  always  found 
more  or  less  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees,  but  when  the  condi- 


172 


Classification  of  Insects :  Colcoptera. 


ditions  for  their  increase  are  multiplied,  as  in  case  of  many  trees 
being  prostrated  by  a  gale,  they  increase  in  enormous  quantities,  and 
destroy  whole  forests.  In  suqh  cases,  they  appear  to  attack  per- 
fectly healthy  trees.  The  first  of  these  (B.  typographicus)  does  the 
most  harm,  and  is  found  chiefly  in  and  under  the  bark  of  the  trunk 
and  large  branches.  The  preceding  engraving  represents  a  set 
of  burrows  made  by  the  larvae  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  one  insect, 
and  an  enlarged  view  of  the  insect  itself. 

683.  The  burrows  of  the  Bostrichw  calcographus  are  generally 
found  at  the  same  time,  and  upon  the  same  trees  as  those  of  the 
preceding  species,  but  only  upon  the  smaller  branches.  The  only 


96.  Burrows  of  the  Bostrichus  chalcographus,  with  the  Insects 
of  Natural  Size. 

effectual  remedy  known  against  these  insects,  is  that  of  cutting  down 
the  trees,  and  peeling  and  burning  the  bark.  In  an  invasion  of 
these  insects  in  the  Jura  region  in  South-eastern  France,  following 
as  one  of  the  consequences  of  a  storm  that  happened  in  November, 
1^64,  it  became  necessary  from  1867  to  1873  to  carefully  examine 
every  tree  in  a  forest,  and  to  cut  down  every  spruce  that  showed 
signs  of  the  insect,  and  to  peel  and  burn  the  bark  upon  over 


Classification  of  Insects:  Orthoptera. 


173 


181,000  trees.     By  this  energetic  means,  the  ravages  of  these  in- 
sects were  arrested. 

684.  In  the  United  States,  at  present  prices  of  labor,  and  of 
timber,  such  a  remedy  would  be  wholly  impracticable,  but  this 
statement  serves  to  illustrate  the  great  importance  attached  to  this 
subject  in  Europe,   and  the  sacrifices  that  are  sometimes  made  to 
check  these  injuries. 

685.  (7i).    The    Cerambycidece  —  the 
long-horned  or  Capricorn  beetles,  are  de- 
structive wood-borers.     They  generally 
rest  by  day  upon  the  trees,  and  fly  by 
night.     Their   larvae   are   long   whitish 
grubs,  with  the  head  smaller  than  the 
first  ring,  and  provided  with  short  but 
powerful  jaws.     These  grubs,  in  some 
cases,  live  several  years  before  coming 
to   maturity.      They  are  divided  into 
three  families  and  many  groups,  some 
species  in  the  tropics  measuring  five  or 
six  inches  in  length  and  two  inches  in 
breadth. 

686.  The  remaining  divisions  of  the  beetles,  some  of  which  are 
injurious  to  trees,  and  especially  to  the  leaves,  can  not  be  here  de- 
scribed in  detail.     Some  species  are  leaf-miners,  eating  out  the  soft 
parts  and  leaving  the  skeleton,  and  some  doing  injury  in  the  larva 
form  while  others  injure  as  perfect  insects.     Many  of  these  appear 
to  be  governed  by  climatic  influences,  appearing  in  some  years  very 
abundantly,  while  at  other  times  they  disappear  for  a  series  of  years 
altogether. 

(2.)  ORTHOPTERA  (Cockroaches,  Crickets,  Grasshoppers,  etc). 

687.  These  are  insects  with  jaws,  two  rather  thick  and  opaque 
upper  wings,  overlapping  a  little  on  the  back^  and  two  larger  thin 
wings,  which  are  folded  in  plaits.     Transformation  partial,  larvaa 
and  pupae  active,  but  want- 
ing  wings.      All    insects  of 

this  order — except  the  camel- 
crickets,  which  prey  upon 
other  insects— are  injurious  98.  Moie-Crickct. 


97.  Lerambyx  carcltariaa. 


174        Insects:  Hemiptera,  Neuroptera,  Lepidoptera. 

to  man.  The  mole-cricket  is  one  of  this  class,  and  in  Europe  is 
very  troublesome  in  nurseries  and  gardens,  by  eating  the  roots  of 
trees  and  plants.  A  single  brood  will  destroy  a  whole  seed-bed. 
By  breaking  the  crust  of  hardened  earth  in  June,  their  nests  are 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  eggs  perish. 

(3.)  HEMIPTERA  (Bugs,  Locusts,  Plant-lice,  etc.). 

688.  These  are  insects  with  a  horny  beak  for  suction,  four  wings, 
of  which  the  upper  are  generally  thick  at  the  base,  with  thinner  ex- 
tremities, and  which  lie  flat  and  cross  each  other  on  the  top  of  the  back, 
or  are  of  uniform  thickness  throughout,  and  slope  at  the  sides  like  a 
roof.    Transformation  partial,  larvae  and  pupae  nearly  like  the  adult 
insect,  but  wanting  wings.    Some,  like  the  cochineal  insect,  are  use- 
ful, but  the   damages   done   by  plant-bugs,  locusts,    tree-hoppers, 
froth-insects,  plant-lice,  bark-lice,   mealy-bugs,   and   the   like,   by 
sucking  the  juices  of  plants,  is  very  great. 

(4.)  NEUROPTERA  (Dragon-flies,  Lace-winged  Flies,  May-flies,  Ant-lion, 
Day-flu,  White  Ants,  etc.). 

689.  These  are  insects  with  jaws,  four  netted  wings,  of  which 
the  hinder  ones  are  the  largest,  and  no  sting.     Transformation  com- 
plete or  partial,  larva  and  pupa  various.     White  ants,  wood-lice  and 
wood-ticks,  are  almost  the  only  noxious  insects  of  this  order,  and 
even  these  do  not  injure  living  plants.     Many  of  them  destroy  other 
insects  for  their  food. 

(5.)  LEPIDOPTERA  (Butterflies,  Sphinges,  and  Moths). 

690.  These  insects  have  a  mouth  with  a  spiral   sucking  tube ; 
wings  four,  covered  with  brarmy  scales.     Transformation  complete. 
The  larvae  are  caterpillars,  and  have  six  true  legs,  and  from  four  to 
ten  fleshy  prop-legs.     Pupa  with  the  cases  of  the  wing's  and  of  the 
legs  indistinct,  and  soldered  to  the  breast. 

691.  Of  the  butterflies  proper,  the  forester  has  not  much  to  com- 
plain.    The  perfect  insects  feed  upon  flowers,  and  the  larvie  upon 
vegetable  substances.     They  usually  change  their  skins  about  four 
times  before  they  come  to  full  size.     Their  life  in  the  final  state  is 
brief,  and  in  the  splendor  of  colors  they  rival  sometimes  all  other 
forms  of  animal  life. 


Classification  of  Insects:  Lepidoptera. 


175 


99.  One  of  the  Ha\yk-moths  or 
Sphinges  (Scsia),  in  Form  of 
perfect  Insect. 


692.  The  Sphinges  or  hawk-moths 
derive  the  name  "Sphynx"  from  a 
fancied   resemblance  of  their   cater- 
pillars, when  at  rest,  to  the  Egyptian 
sphynx,    supporting   themselves   up- 
right  by   their   fore-legs.     They  in- 
clude a   peach-tree  borer,  and  seme 
other  species  injurious  to  trees.     We 
present  in  the  margin  an  engraving 
of  the  perfect   insect,  the   larvsc  of 
which  infest  the  wood  of  the  elm,  al- 
ways boring  at  the  base  of  the  trunk,  where  it  unites  with  the  root, 
and  appearing  to  divide  the  territory  with   the  Cossus,  that  bores 
only  in  the  trunk. 

693.  A  night-moth  near- 
ly  allied   with   the   Bom- 
byces,  and  by  some  natu- 
ralists classed  with  them, 
but  by  others  made  a  sep- 
arate family,  named  Zeu- 
zeradce,  is  very  often  found 
in  Europe  upon  the  horse- 
chestnut.     The  larvae  are 
white,  soft  and  naked,  or 
slightly  downy,  with  brown 
horny  heads,  spots  on  the 
body,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving, and  sixteen  legs. 
They  are  wood-borers,  and 
are  also  very   destructive 

to  the  pear,  apple,  lilac,  and  occasionally  to  the  young  elms.  In 
favorite  trees  it  may  be  killed  by  a  wire  inserted  into  its  burrow, 
the  opening  of  which  may  be  known  by  the  dust  that  falls  out,  and 
a  violet-colored  tiiige  on  its  border.  The  genus  to  which  this  be- 
longs is  European,  and,  according  to  Davis,  has  not  been  found  in 
this  country.  We  have  many  others,  however,  of  closely  allied 
forms,  and  of  very  destructive  nature. 

694.  Linnaeus  divided  the  Moths  into  eight  groups,  viz.  :  Attiti, 
Bombyc-es,  Nocttice,  Geometrce,  Tortriees,  Pyralides,  Tinece  and  Alucitce. 


100.  Zeazera  xsculi. 


101.  Larva  of  the  Zeuzera. 


176 


Classification  of  Insects:  Lepidoptera. 


The  first  of  these  has,  by  later  naturalists,  been  merged  with  others, 
but,  with  this  exception,  these  groups  have  been  considered  as  well 
marked,  and  are  generally  retained.  We  present  a  few  examples 
of  some  of  these  forms. 

695.  The  Bomby- 
ces,  or  spinners,  are 
thick- bodied  moths, 
with  feathered  an- 
tenna?, at  least  in  the 
males,  tongue  short 

(Male)  (Female.}  or   wanting,   thorax 

102.  Bombyx  neustria.    (Perfect  Insect.) 

woolly  but  not  crest- 
ed, and  the  Iarva3 
generally  spinners. 
The  figures  here  giv- 
en show  one  of  nu- 
merous species  of 
this  group.  They 
have  sometimes 
proved  exceedingly 
destructive,  by  eat- 
ing off  the  leaves  of 
trees,  while  in  the 
larva  state.  We 
here  present  a  view 
of  the  perfect  insect, 
the  larva?  of  which 
prove  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  Scotch 
pine.  Whole  forests 


103.  Larva  of  the  Bombyx  neustria. 


104.  Bombyx  of  the  Pine.    (Female.) 


105.  Larva  of  the  Bombyx  pini. 


Classification  of  Insects:  Lepuloptera.  177 

are  sometimes  laid  waste  by  these  devourers.  They  will  even  fill 
ditches  that  have  been  dug  to  arrest  their  progress,  and  the  only 
way  to  control  them  is  to  collect  in  winter  and  burn  the  mosses  in 
which  they  are  concealed. 

696.  The  Noctuce,  or  owlet  moths,  chiefly  fly  by  night,  and  are 
thick-bodied,  swift-flying  moths,    that  do  considerable    damage  to 
vegetation,  and  some  of  them  live  exposed  on  the  leaves  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  but  the  greater  part  feed  only  by  night. 

697.  The  Geometrce,  or  span  worms,  live  mostly  in  the  larva  state 
only  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  undergo  their  transformation  in  the 
ground.     Their  larvae  derive  their  name  from  their  manner  of  crawl- 
ing, by  drawing  up  the  body  into  an  arch, 

and  then  reaching  forward  for  a  new  hold. 

When  disturbed,  they  drop  by  a  silken  thread, 

till  the  danger  is  over,  and  then  climb  back 

again  to  their  former  place,  with  a  tolerably  Ib6  Ma^foth  of  the  Geom. 

rapid  motion,   by  seizing   the   thread    with       span-mTms  °ne  °f  the 

their  jaws  and  forelegs. 

698.  The  canker-worm  female  moths  are  nearly  without  wings, 
and  are  sluggish  in  their  movements.      They   in- 
stinctively make  their  way  from   the  ground  where 

they  have  been  hatched  towards  the  nearest  trees, 
and  slowly  creep  up  the  trunks,  pairing  with  their  107  Femal%e  Moth 
winged  mates  in  their  ascent.     They  are  chiefly  in- 
jurious  to  the  apple  and  elm  trees,  but  also  attack 
the  plum,  cherry,  and  lime  trees, 
and  strip  them  of  the  pulpy  part 
of  the  leaves,  leaving  the  mid- 
ribs and  veins  remaining. 

699.  The    Tortrices,    or    leaf- 
rollers,  are  so  called  from  the 

cyliudrical  rolls  that  they  form108-  Larva  skS  ofCu" R^vIgeT'  &nd  the 
around  themselves  at  the  close 
of  their  larva-life.  Very  few  of  them  make  cocoons,  and  most  of 
them  go  through  their  transformations  in  their  leaf-cases.  The  moths 
of  this  tribe  are  mostly  small,  and  they  fold  their  wings  over  their 
bodies  when  at  rest,  like  a  steep  roof.  Most  of  them  when  dis- 


178  Classification  of  Insects  :  LepuJoptera. 

turbed  iu  the  larva  state  will  drop  by  a  silk  thread  like  the  pre- 
ceding kinds. 


108.  Tortrix  resinianx.    (The  Insect  at  Rest  of  the  Natural  Size; 
the  Larva  and  Flying  Insect  Enlarged.) 

700.  The  Pyralides  are  nearly  akin  to  the  geometers,  and  are 
sometimes  called  delta-moths,  from  the  triangular  manner  of  closing 
their  wings.     This  tribe  includes  the  meal-worms  of  old  flour  barrels, 
the  grease-moths,  the  hop-vine  caterpillar,  etc.,  but  they  are  not 
particularly  injurious  to  trees. 

701.  The  Tinece  are  chiefly  destructive  to  clothing  and  household 
stuff,  but  some  of  them   burrow  into  leaves,  and   make  winding 
passages  iu  tho  pulpy  substance  of  plants. 


Classification  of  Insects :  Hymenoptera,  Diptera.      179 

702.  The  Alucitce,  or  feather-winged  moths,  is  a  small  tribe  of 
not  much  importance  from  the  injuries  done. 

(6.)  HYMENOPTERA  (Saw-Flies,  Ants,  Wasps,  Bees,  etc). 

703.  These  are  insects  with  jaws,  four  veined  wings  in  most  species, 
the  hinder  pair  being  the  smallest,  and  a  piercer  or  sting  at  the  end 
of  the  abdomen.     Transformation  complete.     Larvae  mostly  maggot 
or  slug-like ;   of  some,  caterpillar-like.      Pupa3  with  the  legs  and 
wings  unconfined. 

704.  In  the  adult  state,  these  chiefly  live  upon  honey,  the  pollen  of 
flowers,  and  the  juices  of  fruits.     As  slugs  or  false  caterpillars  they 
sometimes  injure  plants.     Some  are  wood-borers  and  wood-eaters, 
the  pines  and  firs  suffering  most.     Others  cause  galls  and  excres- 
cences upon  leaves  and  twigs,  those  upon  the  oak  furnishing  the  nut- 
galls  of  commerce.     On  the  whole,  the  injury  they  do  is  far  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  their  benefits,  especially  in  the  ichneumon 
flies,    which    destroy   enormous    numbers   of    noxious   insects,    by 
puncturing  their  eggs  or  their  larvae,  and  depositing  their  own  eggs 
within  them. 

705.  Others  lay  their  eggs   in   the   provisioned   nests  of  other 
insects,  whose  young  are  starved  by  the  food  being  first  eaten  by 
the  earlier-hatched  intruders.     The  larvae  in  which  the  ichneumon 
fly  has  laid  its  eggs  do  not  at  once  die.     They  may  even  complete 
this  stage,  and  form  a  cocoon,  from  which,  in  due  time,  an  ichneumon 
fly  will  emerge  in  place  of  the  original  insect. 

706.  The  wood-wasps,  sand-wasps,  etc.,  are  predaceous,  and  feed 
upon  other  insects.     Our  honey-bee  and  the  bumble-bee  belong  to 
this  order,  and  serve  a  most  useful  purpose,  by  conveying  the  pullen 
from  one  blossom  to  another,  and  thus  fertilizing  them. 

(7.)  DIPTERA  (Musquitoes,  Gnats,  Flies,  etc). 
706 J.  These  are  insects  with  a  horny  or  fleshy  proboscis^  two 
wings  only,  and  two  knobbed  threads,  called  balancers  or  poisers, 
behind  the  wings.  Transformation  complete.  Their  maggots  have 
no  feet.  These  are  generally  not  injurious  to  trees.  The  Cecidomy- 
diadce  includes  the  midges,  or  gall-gnats,  whose  effects  are  often  seen 
on  the  leaves  of  trees,  but  generally  not  so  as  to  materially  injure 
their  growth.  The  wheat- fly,  Hessian-fly,  and  fruit-flies  belong  to 
this  order. 


180  Insects  injurious  to  Oaks  and  Elms. 

707.  Some  writers  have  assigned  the  rank  of  a  separate  order  to 
certain  groups  that  present  intermediate  or  anomalous  characters, 
but  for  the  present   purpose  the  above  may  be  sufficient,  and  in 
speaking  of  these   orders,  we  will  use  the  numbers  above  given, 
instead  of  their  names. 

708.  Insects  that  attack  the  Oaks.     Of  these  223  are  enumerated, 
of  which   about  38   belong  to  the  1st  class,  9  to  the  3d,   103  to 
the  5th,  and  64  to  the  6th.     To  the  1st  class  belong  several  de- 
structive flat-headed  and  bark  borers,  the  oak-pruner,  a  leaf-roller, 
and  several  species  of  borers  that  live  in  stumps  and  decaying 
timber. 

709.  The  3d  class  includes  the  seventeen -year  locust  (Clcida  sep- 
temdeceni) ,  which  spends  the  interval  between  its  appearance  as  a 
perfect  insect,  in  the  ground,  attached  to  the  roots  of  trees  or  other 
plants,  and  when  it  comes  out  to  breed  does  considerable  damage  to 
the  twigs  or  trees  by  stinging  them,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its 
eggs. 

710.  The   5th  class  includes  the   carpenter-moths,  whose  larvae 
bore  large  holes  in  the  wood,  acorn- worms,  the  leaf  miners,  tent- 
caterpillars,  oak-worms,  tussock    caterpillar,  American  silk-worm 
(from  which  silk  of  good  quality  may  be  made),  geometer  moths, 
and  leaf-rollers. 

711.  The  6th  class  includes  the  gall-flies,  that  sting  the  twigs  and 
leaves,  of  which  there  are  many  species.     Of  these  something  can 
be  done  to  destroy  the  flat-headed   borers,  by  applying  soap  to  the 
trunk,  and  by  cutting  in  and  extracting  them.     Where  branches 
fall,  from  the  work  of  oak-pruners,  they  may  be  gathered  and  burned, 
to  destroy  the  eggs  or  insects  that  are  in  them. 

712.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Elms.     Of  these  about  47  are  known, 
of  which  14  belong  to  the  1st  class,  1  to  the  2d,  4  to  the  3d,  25  to 
the  5th,  and  3  to  the  6th.     The  1st  class  includes  the  elm-tree  borer 
(Saperda  trldentata),  bark-borers,  and  great  elm-beetle.     The  3d  in- 
cludes the  gall-louse  ;  the  5th,  the  canker-worms,  span-worms,  fall 
web- worms,   and   American   silk-worm,  of  the  same  species  found 
upon  the  oak  ( Telea  potyphemus)  ;   and  the  6th  the  saw-flies. 

713.  As  a  remedy  against  the  canker-worm,  printer's  ink  spread 
on  tarred  paper,  or  the  use  of  troughs  filled  with  oil,  or  cotton  fast- 
ened around  the  tree,  will  prevent  the  females  from  ascending  it. 


Insects  injurious  to  Elms.  181 

Web-worm  nests  can  be  removed  with  mops  dipped  in  carbolic  acid 
solution  or  kerosene. 

714.  The  elm  is  liable  to  suffer  from  a  beetle  which  makes  its  at- 
tack upon  the  bark,  in  the  interior  and  on  the  under  side,  aud  with- 
out showing  much  appearance  externally.  The  tree  will  begin  to 
languish,  apparently  while  in  the  full  vigor  of  growth,  and,  when 
cut  down,  the  bark  will  in  a  little  while  loosen  and  fall  off,  disclosing 
a  multitude  of  burrows. 


110.  Perfect  Insect  of  the  Scnli/tiiK  destructor,  of  natural  size  above,  and  enlarged  be- 
lo\\ :  together  with  the  Larva  and  Pupa,  of  natural  size  aud  enlarged;  and  the 
Burrows,  under  the  Bark,  made  by  the  Scolytus  multistriatus. 

715.  A  remedy  has  been  proposed  by  Dr.  Eugene  Robert,  of 
Paris,  which  consists  in  shaving  off  the  outer  bark  down  to  the  liber 
or  live  bark,  from  the  whole  trunk,  and  on  scarifying  down  to  the  wood 
the  smaller  branches,  by  drawing  a  sharp,  three-bladed  hooking  in- 
strument (with  the  middle  blade  somewhat  shorter  than  the  others) 
lengthwise  along  the  surface.  This  is,  of  course,  an  expensive  pro- 
cess, and  only  to  be  practiced  in  city  parks,  and  other  places  where 
the  elms  are  prized  as  shade  trees.  It  should  be  done  only  after  the 
summer  growth  is  ended,  and  before  the  sap  starts  in  spring.  The 
disagreeable  color  which  this  process  leaves,  may  be  covered  up  with 
a  paint  composed  of  coal  tar  and  yellow  ochre,  to  imitate  the  natu- 
ral shade  of  color  of  the  bark.  It  is  not  found  necessary  to  burn 
the  bark  that  comes  off,  unless  it  contains  the  perfect  insects,  for 
the 'larvae  will  die  without  further  attention,  and  the  eggs,  if  they 
should  hatch,  would  find  nothing  to  feed  on. 

71G.  Insects  injurious  to  tJie  Hickories.     Of  these  97  species  are 


182  Insects  injurious  to  Hickories,  Walnuts,  Chestnuts,  etc. 

enumerated,  of  which  about  35  belong  to  the  1st  class,  1  to  the  2d, 
33  to  the  3d,  8  to  the  7th,  and  the  remainder  to  the  5th.  The  1st 
class  includes  the  hickory-borers,  twig-girdler,  and  bark-borers;  the 
2d  the  walking-stick ;  the  3d  various  bark-lice,  gall-lice,  tree-hoppers, 
phylloxeras,  etc;  and  the  5th  the  tussock-moth,  leaf-rollers,  etc. 

717.  The  1st  class  includes  various  hickory-borers,  the  most  de- 
structive of  which  is  the  Scolytus  tetraspinosa,  affecting  the  bitternut, 
shell-bark,  pig-nut,  and  probably  the  pecan.     It  mines  under  the 
bark  and  into  the  wood  of  the  trunk  and   branches.     The  Cyllene 
picta,  a  borer  found  in  this  tree,  is  the  same  that  proves  so  destruc- 
tive to  the  locust, 

718.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Black  Walnut.     About  a  dozen  species 
are  found  on  this  tree,  the  most  destructive  being  the  borer  so  in- 
jurious to  the  locust  and  the  hickory  (Cyllene  picta). 

719.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Butternut.    About  20  species  feed  upon 
this  tree,  of  which  2  are  of  the  1st  class,  6  of  the  3d,  1  of  the  6th, 
and  the  rest  of  the  5th.     It  is  comparatively  free  from  injuries,  the 
more  important  ones  being  bark-lice,  hoppers,  and  scale  insects,  and 
occasionally  the  larvae  of  moths  upon  the  leaves. 

720.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Chestnut.    Of  these,  20  are  mentioned, 
some  being  uncertain  as  to  classification.     They  are  chiefly  borers, 
that  pierce  the  bark,  the  wood  and  the  fruit,  or  leaf-hoppers  and 
phylloxeras,  that  feed  upon  the  leaves.     The  white  ant  sometimes 
consumes  the  interior  of  chestnut  fence-posts,  etc.,  as  it  also  mines 
in  the  elm,  pine  and  other  woods. 

721.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Locust.     Twenty-two  insects  are  men- 
tioned as  infesting  this  tree,  of  which  by  far  the  most  important  is 
the  locust-borer  (Cyttene  picta),  which  has  so  effectually  destroyed 
the  plantations  begun  with  much  success  in  the  early  history  of  tree- 
planting  in  the  prairie  states.     It  is  a  beetle  of  velvet-black,  with 
transverse  bands  of  yellow,  and  is  often  found  feeding  on  the  bios- 
soms  of  the  golden-rod.     It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark 
near  the  roots,  in  September,  and,  after  mining  in  the  wood  in  the 
larva  state,  it  comes  out  a  perfect  insect  in  the  month  of  June  fol- 
lowing.    It  appears  to  have  migrated  westward,  being  first  noticed 
about  1845  near  Chicago,  and,  in  1863,  at  Rock  Island.    Two  years 
after  it  was  in  Iowa,  and  it  is  now  common  in  most  parts  of  that 
state  and  westward. 

722.  In  densely  planted  groves  in  the  eastern  states,  it  chiefly  at- 


Insects  injurious  to  Locust,  Maples,  Cottomcoods,  etc.  183 

tacks  the  outer  trees  only.  Something  may  be  done  to  save  a  val- 
uable tree  by  soaping  the  trunk  in  August,  or  by  whitewashing,  or 
covering  with  grafting  composition.  This  tree  suffers  from  several 
leaf  miners  (against  which  there  is  no  remedy  but  hand-picking), 
and  several  gall-flies  and  midges. 


111.  Larva  of  the  Melolontha,  upon   the 
Root  of  an  Acacia. 


112.    Pupa  of   the  Melolontha, 
(upper  and  under  sides). 


723.  The  pods  and  seeds  of  the  locust  are  at  times  inhabited  by 
a  weevil,  and  dead  locust  timber  is  liable  to  be  consumed  by  borers 
differing  from  those  that  pierce  the  living  trees. 

724.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Maple.     Of  these  38  are  mentioned, 
including  a  borer  that  pierces  the  solid  trunks  of  sound  sugar-maple 
trees  (Glycobius  spec iosas),  the  flat-headed  borer  that  is  also  found 
on  the  apple  tree  (Chrysoboihris  femorata),  and  various  worms — the 
larv?e  of  moths  that  strip  the  trees  of  their  leaves.     The  American 
silk-worm  ( Teha,  polyphemus)  sometimes  attacks  the  maple,  and  does 
much  damage. 

725.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Cottonwood.     Of  these  16  are  named, 
chiefly  beetles  that  bore  the  wood  or  consume  the  leaves.     There 
are   several   saw-flies   and  gall -insects  that  affect  the  leaves  and 
twigs. 

726.  Insects  injurious  to  the  Poplars.     Of  these  36  are  named,  in- 
cluding borers,  span-worms,  gall-lice,  several  leaf-rollers,  and  miners 
that  eat  out  the  soft  parts  of  the  leaves.     The  larvae  of  the  genus 


184 


Insects  injurious  to  the  Poplar,  Birch,  etc. 


Sciapttron,  a  moth  much  like  that  which  injures  the  currant-bush 
by  boring,  has  proved  very  destructive  to  the  poplars  in  Nevada  and 
in  California.  One  species  attacks  also  the  locust,  in  the  latter  state. 
The  accompanying  engraving  shows  one  of  the  insects  that  attacks 
the  poplars  in  Europe,  and  the  effect  of  its  ravages. 


113.  Ravages  of  the  Snperda 
car char ias  upon  the  Poplar. 
(Insect  and  Larva  of  Na- 
tural Six:-.) 


114.  The  Poplar  Twig  Borer 
(Saperda ). 


727.  Insects  that  injure  the  Linden.     The  basswood  has  23  known 
enemies,  including  borers,  inch-worms  that  consume  the  leaves,  leaf- 
beetles,  and  leaf-miners.     Some  of  these  are  the  same  that  feed  upon 
the  poplars. 

728.  Insects  that  injure  the  Birch.     Of  these  there  are  19,  including 
plant-lice,  leaf-hoppers,  etc.,  chiefly  attacking  the  leaves.     This  tree 
is  comparatively  free  from  these  injuries. 

729.  Insects  that  injure  the  Beech.     Of  these  15  are  named,  chiefly 
eating  the  leaves. 


Insects  injurious  to  the  Willows  and  Pines.          185 

730.  The  Willows  have  99  species  of  insects  feeding  upon  their  wood 
and  leaves,  a  very  large  number  being  gall-insects,  plant-lice,  and 
leaf-rollers.     Of  the  remaining  deciduous  species,  there  is  no  one  but 
that  has  several  insects  upon  its  leaves,  or  other  parts,  and  there  is 
perhaps  not  one  that  wholly  escapes  alive  when  these  are  in  excess. 

731.  We  next  come  to  consider  the  coniferous  species,  some  of 
which  suffer  severely,  especially  when  their  leaves  are  attacked, 
because  these  do  not  put  forth  new  leaves  again,  as  do  most  of  those 
enumerated,  and  when  the  leaves  are  stripped  off,  the  tree  must  die. 
They  can  not  sprout  from   the  roots,   and  seldom  put  forth  side 
branches  to  save  life  when  severely  injured.     Taken  as  a  whole, 
coniferous  forests  are  much  more  liable  to  general  ruin  when  attacked 
than  others. 

732.  The  Pirns  are  liable  to  attack  from  about  110  species,  of 
which  about  G2  belong  to  the  1st  class,  16  to  the  3d,  21  to  the  5th, 
8  to  the  Cth,  and  2  to  the  7th.     Of  the  1st  class  are  many  species 
of  wood  and  bark-borers,  that  are  generally  more  liable  to  attack 
old  trees  that  have  passed  their  prime. 


rr 


115.  Pine  Weevil  (Hylobus ). 

733.  The  pine  weevil  is  a  very  destructive  insect,  breeding  un- 
der the  bark,  but  doing  the  greatest  injury  after  it  has  com.'  to 
the  perfect  form.  It  then  attacks  the  young  trees,  generally  those 
of  from  three  to  six  years  of  age,  eating  out  the  terminal  shoot,  the 
buds  and  the  young  stems.  It  is  not  much  inclined  to  fly,  and  in 
very  hot  weather,  as  also  in  the  cool  of  night,  it  conceals  itself 
among  the  herbage  and  litter  on  the  ground. 


186  Insects  injurious  to  Pines  and  Spruces. 

734.  The  white-pine  weevil  (Pissodes  strobi),  allied  to  the  species 
here  presented,  does  great  damage  to  the  young  pines,  by  eating 


116.  \Tissodes  \>olatus.    (The  Length  of  the  Insect  is  indicated  by  the 
'hite  Line  in  the  lower  left-hand  Corner.) 

into  the  leading  shoot.  A  method  is  practiced  in  Europe  of  de- 
stroying thes£  and  other  insects  of  the  pine,  which  consists  in  stick- 
ing some  newly  cut  branches  of  the  pine-trees 
in  the  ground,  in  some  open  place,  at  about 
the  season  when  the  insects  are  laying  their 
eggs.  In  a  few  hours  the  branches  will  be  cov- 
ered with  beetles,  which  may  be  shaken  into  a 
cloth  and  burned.  This  is,  however,  altogether 
impracticable  in  a  forest,  and  the  best  check 
upon  their  increase  is  provided  by  nature  in  the 
ichneumon  flies  that  deposit  their  eggs  in  their 
bodies,  and  thus  finally  destroy  them.  The 
accompanying  engraving  shows  the  effect  of 
these  injuries  upon  the  young  twigs  of  the 
pine. 

735.  The  Spruces  suffer  very  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  pines,  but  the  number  of  spe- 
cies noticed  is  only  about  a  quarter  as  great. 
The  most  destructive  are  the  bark  and  wood- 
in  Effect  of  Ravages  of  boring   beetles,   which   although   generally  at- 
Pine^wij1""^0111110   tacking  trees  that  are  on  the  decline,  appear  at 
times  nevertheless  to  bore  into  perfectly  sound  and   healthy  trees. 
The  family  of  coleoptera  known  as  Scobjtidce,  which  may  be  called 


Insects  injurious  to  Spruces  and  other  Conifers.       187 

''cylindrical  bark-beetles,"  appears  to  be  the  most  destructive, 
especially  the  genera  Hylurym,  Tomicus,  Scolytus,  Xyloterus,  Bostri- 
chiiSj  Xyloborus,  Crypturgus,  etc.,  as  variously  described  by  authors. 

736.  They  are  very  small,  but  occur  in  immense  numbers,  and  by 
burrowing  under  the  bark,  and  in  the  newly  formed  layer  of  sap- 
wood,  effectually  girdle   the   trees  and   destroy  them.     There  are 
also  various  span-worms   and  larvsB  of  caterpillars,  saw-flies,  bud 
and   leaf-lice,  and   other   insects   that   feed   upon   the  leaves   and 
buds. 

737.  The  Balsam  Fir  suffers  from  the  same  long-horned  beetle  that 
proves  so  destructive  to  the  pines  and  spruces  (Monoliammus  confusor) , 
and  from  a  saw-fly  (class  6),  and  from  the  larvse  of  various  moths 
and  butterflies. 

738.  The  Htmlock  suffers  from  borers  in   the  wood,   and  inch- 
worms  upon  the  leaves,  but  seldom  to  much  extent.     The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  red  and  white  cedars,  the  junipers,  the  larch,  and 
other  conifers. 

739.  Very  many  of  these  destructive  insects  have  their  insect 
enemies,  some  of  them  being  carnivorous  beetles,  others  mites  that 
fasten  upon  them,  or  ichneumon  flies,  that  lay  their  eggs  in  their 
bodies.     It  has  also  been  noticed  that  certain  insectivorous  birds, 
and   especially   woodpeckers,    will   appear   in    unusual   abundance 
in  spruce  and  pine  wroods  infested  with  bark-boring  insects.     They 
will   even   follow  the  logs   of  the  mill-yards,  and  persist  in  their 
search  for  this  food  wherever  there  is  opportunity.     By  protecting 
these  birds  we  may  therefore  derive  much  benefit  from  their  aid  in 
the  destruction  of  these  injurious  insects. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PROCESSES     FOR    INCREASING   THE   DURABILITY    OF   TIMBER   OR    FOR 
IMPROVING     ITS     QUALITY. 

740.  In  vegetable,  as  in  animal  organizations,  life  itself  is  gener- 
ally sufficient  to  maintain  the  elements  against  decay  while  it  lasts, 
although  in  both  it  inevitably  tends  to  dissolution,  with  age,  if  not 
prematurely  destroyed.     In  most  kinds  of  wood  the  inner  portion, 
or  heart-wood,  is  more  solid  and  durable  than  the  newer  and  softer 
sap  wood  near  the  outside.    It  is  generally  thought  that  this  mature 
wood  is  no  longer  a  living  purt  of  the  tree,  but  simply  the  old  fibers 


188  Processes  for  Wood-preservation. 

thickened  and  hardened,  by  deposit  of  material  peculiar  to  the  spe- 
cies. It  is  dryer,  heavier,  and  contains  less  potash  than  the  newer 
wood.  Still,  an  iron  tube  driven  deeply  into  the  heart  of  a  maple 
treo  will  yield  sap,  showing  that  there  is  circulation  to  some  extent 
still  present.  In  many  trees  the  heart  wood  may, decay  without  ap- 
parently lessening  the  vigor  of  growth. 

741.  Many  processes  have  been  devised  to  increase  the  durability, 
not  only  of  the  sap  wood,  but  of  the  whole  tree,  either  by  rendering 
it  impervious  to  moisture,  after  thorough  seasoning,  or  by  neutral- 
izing the  tendencies  to  decay,  or  by  injecting  substances  in  solution 
that  become  unalterable  and  permanent,  either  by  directly  uniting 
with  the  tissues  of  the  wood  or  by  forming  new  combinations  be- 
tween different  substances  injected  into  it. 

742.  When  the  pores  of  wood  are  filled  with  other  substances  of 
an  oily  or  resinous  nature,  they  show  less  tendency  to  warp  or  split, 
simply  because  they  do  not  absorb  and  give  out  moisture  with  the 
changes  of  atmosphere. 

743.  In  some  of  these  processes  the  attempt  is  made  to  render 
wood  harder,  stronger,  less  combustible,  more  dense,  more  flexible, 
or  of  richer  color,  or  in  other  ways  more  valuable,  as  well  as  more 
durable. 

744.  Of  the  two  hundred  or  more  antiseptic  processes  that  have 
been  recommended  for  preventing  the  decay  of  wood,  we  can  only 
notice  the  more  important.1     They  consist  generally  in  torrefi cation 
of  the  outside,  or  in  the  injection  or  absorption  of  metallic  or  non- 
metallic  salts,  of  acids  and  their  bases,  of  essential  oils,  or  of  resin- 
ous or  oily  substances.    The  chemical  action  appears  to  be  different, 
according  to  the  process  used,  the  albumen  being  coagulated  in 
some,  while  insoluble  and  durable  mineral  and  organic  combinations 
are  formed  in  others.     Wherever  metallic  salts  are  applied  in  the 
preservation  of  wood,  they  should  be  neutral,  as  an  excess  of  acid 
would  act  upon  the  vegetable  fiber  and  destroy  it.     From  the  latest 
results  of  scientific  inquiry,  it  appears  that  the  real  cause  of  decay 
is  probably  due  to  the  action  of  organized  ferments,  fungi  or  bacteria, 

1  About  120  American  patents  are  on  record  and  in  force  at  the  time  of 
writing.  "We  cin  not  undertake  to  enumerate  them  here;  some  are  not 
worth  notice,  and  the  few  that  we  mention  are  placed  in  their  alphabetical 
order,  not  because  they  are  better  than  others,  but  because  they  are  perhaps 
better  known. 


Processes  for  Wood  preservation.  189 

which  these  antiseptic  processes  tend  to  destroy,  and  that  those 
methods  are  most  certain  that  accomplish  this  result  most  uniformly 
and  effectually  throughout  the  wood. 

745.  Charring. — We  have  elsewhere  noticed  the  extreme  durabil- 
ity of  charcoal.     By  slowly  scorching  the  outside  of  a  post  or  stake 
before  setting  it  in  the  ground,  its  durability  is  much  increased. 
This  is  sometimes  done  with  the  railway  ties  in  Europe,  and  two 
methods  are  employed. 

746.  By  one  of  them,  the  stick  is  laid  upon  an  iron  frame,  that  ad- 
mits of  an  easy  sliding  motion  in  all  directions,  and  a  tongue  of  flame, 
either  from  a  gas-jet  or  from  air  blown  through  flame,  is  passed  over 
everv  part.     By  this  means  the  degree  of  torreh'cation  may  be  reg- 
ulated at  will.     The  process  may  be  applied  to  all  kinds  of  wood- 
work, and  it  may  be  so  managed  as  not  to  destroy  the  sharpness  of 
any  work  upon  the  surface. 

747.  By  another  process,  a  long  iron  tube  is  filled  with  flame,  and 
railway  ties  or  other  wood  may  be  passed  slowly  through  it  on  a 
broad  iron  chain.     Piles  charred  before  using  will  last  for  a  long 
period.     It  was  the  practice  employed  at  Venice  for  the  piles  on 
which  that  city  was  built.     In  whatever  manner  the  scorching  is 
done,  the  timber  must  be  first  thoroughly  seasoned  ;  if  not,  it  will 
only  hasten  its  decay. 

748.  There  is  an  advantage  in  plunging  the  wood 'newly  charred 
into  coal-tar  or  melted  pitch,  or  by  painting  it  thoroughly  with  three 
or  four  coats  of  these  substances.     The  charring  process  is  in  favor 
upon  the  Belgian  railways.     It  has  the  advantage  of  preventing 
injuries  from  gnawing  animals  or  white  ants,  and  hence  its  value  in 
India  and  other  countries  where  these  insects  are  destructive,  as  also 
in  the  wood  work  of  basements,  where  there  is  much  humidity, 
without  proper  ventilation.     It  is  a  most  effectual  remedy  against 
the  dry  rot. 

749.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  slightly  char  the  outside  of 
ship  timber  after  it  was  prepared  for  framing,  but  before  it  was  put- 
together.     The  "  Royal  William,"  one  of  the  most  long-lived  ships 
in  the  British  navy,  was  thus  prepared.     The  fires  used  in  this  pro- 
cess were  made  of  shavings  or  straw,  and  accidents  would  sometimes 
happen. 

750.  In  some,  timbers  used  for  railway  ties,  such  as  oak,  it  is  Dot 
easy  to  inject  with  mineral  salts  or  other  antiseptic  substances,  and 


190  Processes  for  Wood-preservation. 

charring  is  the  best  method  of  preserving  them.  After  they  have 
been  used  several  years,  they  may  be  taken  up,  rasped  off,  burnt 
over  a  second  time,  and  again  used.  The  same  may  be  done  with 
beech  and  other  woods,  where  they  have  not  been  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated. 

751.  By  a  process  invented  by  M.  de  Lapparent  (1862)  a  blow- 
pipe was  devised  for  carbonizing  the  outside  of  railroad  ties,  under 
a  flame  of  common  burning  gas  and  air,  supplied  from   separate 
reservoirs,  with  pipes  that  unite  just  as  they  issue.     Tins  process  has 
been  largely  employed  at  Cherbourg  in  preparing  wood  to  resist 
decay  in  the  French  fleet,  and  a  list  of  twenty-four  vessels  is  given 
in  which  this  method  was  used.     It  has  also  been  employed  in  Dantzic 
and  Pola. 

752.  By  an  apparatus  of  more  powerful  construction,  patented  by 
a  French  engineer,  Hugon,   in   1861,  the  flame  is  supplied  from 
coal-oil.     This  has  been  used  by  the  Orleans  Railway  Company,  and 
from  four  sets  of  apparatus  288  ties  could  be  prepared  in  a  day,  at 
a  very  low  rate,  and  it  is  claimed  with  excellent  result.     It  is  also 
used  in  preparing  telegraph  poles.     It  has  been  thought  that  the 
preservative  qualities  obtained  by  partial  charring  are  at  Irast  partly 
due  to  the  formation  of  creosote  in  the  pores  of  the  wood — a  sub- 
stance known  to  be  one  of  the  best  of  antiseptic  agents. 

753.  By  painting   well   seasoned  wood  with   boiled   linseed   oil 
thickened  with  pulverized  charcoal,  it  will  last  much  longer  in  the 
ground  than  without  this  application.     The  paint  should  be  allowed 
to  dry  before  the  posts  are  set. 

754.  A  coat  of  hot  coal  tar  and  sand  may  be  applied  to  posts  to 
great  advantage  before  setting  them  in  the  ground.     The  end  of 
the  wood  should  especially  be  well  coated,  and  the  covering  should 
extend  a  foot  above  the  ground.     It  is  claimed  that  this  is  particu- 
larly valuable  when  applied  to  chestnut  stakes  and  posts. 

754.  Glauber,   in   1657,  recommended  charring   the  surface  of 
wood,  then  covering  with  tar,  and  immersing  in  pyroligneous  acid. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  recommend  the  use  of  tar,  which 
in  one  form  or  another  has  since  been  employed  in  very  many  of 
these  methods  for  the  preservation  of  timber. 

755.  It  is  said  that  green  Lombardy  poplar  absorbs  boiling  coal 
tar  very  readily,  and  acquires  thereby  very  durable  properties.     It 
might  be  tried  upon  cottonwood  and  willow,  and  for  s  me  uses  it 


Processes  for  Wood-preservatu  v 

might  prove  very  effectual.  It  is  even  recommended  for  stakes 
and  posts,  which  without  preparation  would  speedily  decay.  The 
wood  should  be  peeled  before  boiling. 

756.  Immersion  in  Water,  or  placing  in  Soils  permanently  Wet     It 
is  well  known  that  piles  driven  into  the  soil,  or  timbers  laid  in  the 
water,  or  under  a  wall  where  it  is  always  damp,  and  where  access 
to   the   air  is  wholly  prevented,  will  last  for  an  immense  period. 
Wrecks  of  vessels  will  thus  remain  for  centuries,  and   sometimes 
vessels  are  sunk  to  preserve  them  from  decay,  as  was  done  with  the 
fleet   captured  by  Commodore  Perry  on  Lake   Erie,  in  1814.     It 
remained   under    water   in    the    harbor    at   Erie,    Pa.,    for   many 
years.     Timber  is  sometimes  thus  preserved  till  wanted,  or  it  is 
immersed  at  certain  seasons  to  protect  it  from  insects  that  infest 
ship-yards. 

757.  Wood  that  has  been  long  buried  or  immersed,  finally  becomes 
black  and  dense,  but  it  retains  its  texture.     Foundations  laid  upon 
piles  or  timbers  should  of  course  never  be  drained,  nor  should  air 
be  ever  admitted  to  them  from  sewers  or  otherwise.     Washing  and 
immersion  in  sea- water  have  been  recom mended. 

758.  Penetration  of  Liquids,  and  of  Solid  Substances  in  Solution. 
This  may  be  secured  in  a  variety  of  ways,  as  from  simple  capillarity 
by  immersion  in  a  cold  liquid,  or  by  boiling,  or  by  compression  at 
one  end  of  a  piece  of  timber  still  covered  with  its  bark,  or  by  first 
exhausting  the  air  from  the  pores,  and  afterwards  admitting  liquid 
substances  under  pressure,  or  by  exposure  to  antiseptic  agents  in 
the  form  of  vapor,  generally  under  pressure,  or  by  absorption  in  the 
living  trees,  by  placing  liquid  substances  where  they  may  be  taken 
up  as  the  sap  is  taken  up  in  the  vital  process  of  vegetation. 

759.  As  penetration   under  pressure  after  exhaustion  of  the  air, 
first  proposed  by  Breant,  is  employed  in  many  processes,  the  method 
may  be  briefly  described,  as  nearly  alike  in  all.     A  strong  and  large 
iron  cylinder  is  constructed,  one  end  of  which  may  be  fully  opened, 
or  strongly  closed,  at  will.     The  wood  usually  first  wrought  into 
shape  for  use,  is  placed  upon  a  frame,  usually  running  upon  wheels, 
so  that  it  may  be  easily  run  into  the  cylinder  and  withdrawn  with- 
out displacing  the  wood  piled  or  fastened  upon  it.     The  pressure  is 
generally  supplied   by  steam,  but  sometimes  by  pumps,  aud   its 
amount  is  shown  by  a  gauge.     The  exhaustion  is  sometimes  obtained 


192  Processes  for  Wood-preservation. 

by  pumping,  and  at  other  times  by  the  condensation  of  steam,  as  in 
low  pressure  steam-engines. 

760.  It  may  be  remarked  of  all  methods  of  injection,  that  woods 
with  an  open,  porous  grain,  receive  better  than  those  that  are  solid, 
and  that  the  sap  wood  is  more  easily  injected  than  the  heart  wood. 
The  coniferous  species,  especially  the  sap  wood,  if  not  already  full 
of  resin,  generally  afford  good   results,   while  the  oaks  and  other 
solid  woods  can  scarcely  be  injected  in  their  heart  wood.     It  is  fur- 
ther found  that  in  wood  that  has  begun  to  decay  the  tissues  appear 
to  be  disorganized,  so  that  solutions  will  not  penetrate,  even  under 
great  pressure.     Without  attempting  to  classify  the  various  processes 
employed  for  increasing  the  durability  of  timber,   we  will  briefly 
describe  some  of  the  more  common  methods. 

761.  Impregnation  with  Oils.     This  is  an  ancient  process.     The 
essential  oils  were  used  in  wooden  structures  in  Rome.      Perhaps 
the  best  is  linseed  oil,  or  other  vegetable  fixed  oils,  in  preference  to 
animal  oils,  which  cause  the  wood  to  become  brittle.     In   India, 
cocoa-nut  oil,  beaten  up  with  shell-lime,  is  used  as  a  varnish  to  plank. 
Our  common   paints  derive   their  well-known   preservative   effect 
largely  from  the  oils  that  they  contain,  but  they  should  never  be 
applied  except  to  wood  thoroughly  seasoned.     Trenails  are  sometimes 
boiled  in  oil  before  using. 

762.  Crude  Petroleum  is  found  to  be  an  excellent  preserving  agent, 
and  has  been  employed  in  ship  and  house-building  with  great  suc- 
cess. 

763.  Common  Salt  is  sometimes  put  into  ships,  while  building,  and 
has  the  effect  of  rendering  the  wood  durable.     It  is  liable  to  be  dis- 
solved away,  and  to  cause  a  corrosion  of  iron  fastenings.     It  also 
renders  vessels  damp  -and  unwholesome,  and  if  in  excess,  it  swells 
the  tissues  by  the  crystals  that  form  iu  drying.     The  method  of 
salting  is  required  by  lake  underwriters  in  new  first-class  vessels, 
and  it  is  recommended  by  the  American  Lloyds.1 

141  The  mode  of  salting  is  to  fix  stops  of  boards  between  the  timbers  of 
the  fran»es  about  the  height  of  the  load-line,  and  when  the  ceiling  and  plank- 
ing are  worked  and  the.  plank-shear  ready  to  go  into  place,  the  spaces 
between  the  timbers  are  filled  with  salt.  Near  the  end  of  the  vessel  the  salt 
is  sometimes  put  between  the  frames,  quite  down  to  the  dead  wood.  A 
vessel  of  500  tons  will  take  100  barrels  of  salt  applied  in  the  usual  manner." 
(  W.  W.  Bates,  Ag.  Rep.  1-S66.) 


Processes  for  Wood-preservation.  193 

764.  Incombustible  Wood.     Experiments  have  been  made  by  order 
of  the  English  Admiralty,  to  test  a  process  of  Dr.  Jones  for  render- 
ing Wood  incombustible,  by  the  use  of  the  tungstate  of  soda,  a  salt 
obtained  by  the  action  of  muriatic  acid  and  common  salt  upon  the 
tungstate  of  lirne  (scheelite).     Soft  woods  are  said  to  be  rendered 
solid  and  durable.1 

765.  Alum  tends  to  render  wood  incombustible,  and  claims  have 
been  asserted  in  favor  of  its  antiseptic  properties,  while  others  have 
found  that  it  tends  to  hasten  decay.     The  soluble  nature  of  alum 
would  render  it  improper  for  use  where  exposed  to  the  rains,  but 
its  well-established  properties  for  resisting  ignition  may  render  it 
worthy  of  notice  for  inside  work. 

766.  Borax.     It  has  been  proposed  to  saturate  wood  with  borax, 
by  immersing  and  gradually  heating  to  a  boiling  point,  and  leaving 
for  half  a  day.     The  wood  is  then  piled,  and  after  a  time  again 
boiled  for  less  time  in  a  weaker  solution.     It  is  claimed  that  this 
renders  wood  less  combustible,  and  the  process  does  not  discolor  it. 

767.  Lime  appears  to  render  wood  durable,  as  we  see  in  the  boards 
used  for  mortar-beds.     M.  Lostal,  a  French  contractor,  has  proposed 
to  place  wood  in  a  large  basin  or  receiver,  and  cover  it  with  a  layer 
of  fresh-buried  lime,  which  is  watered  by  degrees  till  it  slacks. 
Water  is  then  let  in  till  the  wood  is  covered,  and  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  some  time.     It  gives  a  hardness,  and  it  is  claimed  a  dura- 
bility worthy  of  notice.     It  also  tends  to  render  wood  less  liable  to 
ignition. 

768.  Sulphate  of  Iron.     It  is  well  known  that  copperas  or  green 
vitriol  will  tend  to  increase  the  durability  in  woods,  and  the  lasting 
qualities  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  coal  trade  of  England  are  attrib- 
uted to  the  pyrites  which  all  English  coals  contain,  and  which  form 
this  salt  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  to  moisture.     The  pieces  forming 
parts  of  carriage-wheels  and  other  wooden  structures,  when  fitted 
for  putting  together,  are  sometimes  boiled  three  or  four  hours  in  a 
solution  of  this  salt,  and  then  placed  for  some  days  in  a  warm  place 
to  dry.     It  is  not  corrosive  to  iron,  and  nails  driven  into  it  will  last 
as  long  as  the  wood  itself.2 

1  Revue  des  Eaux  et  Portia,  1874,  p.  302;  1875,  p.  143. 

2 Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke  in  noticing  the  disagreement  in  statements  concern- 
ing this  substance  remarks  :  "At  all  events,  it  has  had  less  thoroughly  than 
some  other  more  fashionable  preservatives,  the  test  of  long  experience.  It 


194  Processes  for  Wood-preservation. 

769.  The  BetheU  Process  was  patented  by  Mr.  John  Bethell,  in 
England,  July  11,  1838.     It  consists  in  subjecting  seasoned  timber, 
under  pressure,  to  creosote  or  oil  of  tar  and  other  bituminous  sub- 
stances that  contain  it,  and  also  to  pyrolignite  of  iron,  which  holds 
more  creosote  in  solution  than  any  other  watery  menstruum.    While  it 
unquestionably  renders  wood  much  more  durable,  and  also  proof  against 
the  attack  of  worms  in  sea-water,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  ren- 
dering it  more  combustible,  and  of  offensive  odor.     We  have  known 
a  bridge  frame  set  on  fire  and  consumed  while  under  construction, 
by  a  workman  attempting  to  burn  out  a  hole  through  two  pieces  in 
contact,  so  as  to  allow  a  bolt  to  fit. 

770.  Creosote  coagulates  the  albumen,  fills  the  pores  of  timber 
with  a  bituminous  substance,  prevents  the  absorption  of  water,  and  is 
obnoxious  to  animal  life.     By  a  patent  of  1853,  Bethell  proposed  to 
first  inject  timbers  with  metallic  salts,  and  after  thorough  drying, 
inject  creosote.     He  used  about  10  pounds  of  creosote  to  a  cubic 
foot.     It  is  sometimes  carried  to  twice  this  amount.     It  has  been 
most  used  on  pines,  and  for  railway  ties,  and  enormous  quantities  of 
the  latter  have  been  sent  to  India  and  other  hot  climates.     It  is 
also  largely  used  for  piles,  docks,  and  bridge  timbers. 

771.  The  pressure  employed  varies  from   150  to  200  pounds  to 
the  inch,  and  the  liquid  is  heated  to  120°  (Fahr.),  and  admitted 
after  the  air  has  been  exhausted.     The  cost  varies  widely,  but  aver- 
ages perhaps  7  to  8  cents  a  cubic  foot.     Railway  ties  that  are  half- 
round  last  longer  when  thus  prepared  than  those  that  are  sawn 
square,  and  a  fine  open  sand  is  best  for  ballast.     It  is  found  that 
ties  that  have  been  creosoted  are  stronger  and  better  able  to  resist  a 
crushing  weight  than  before,  but  sometimes  in  India  they  have  suf- 
fered from  the  white  ants. 

772.  The  Boucherie  Process.     In  December,  1837,  Dr.  Auguste 
Boucherie,  of  Bordeaux,  France,  proposed  the  injection  of  antiseptic 
fluids  through  the  natural  circulation  of  the  living  tree.     He  suc- 
ceeded in  the  use  of  the  sulphates  and  the  acetates  of  copper,  of 
iron,  and  of  zinc,  the  bi-chloride  of  mercury,  arseiiious  acid,  and 
the  arseniate  of  potash,  and  in  some  cases  of  several  of  these  in 
succession.     Of  odorous  substances,  he  procured  the  absorption  of 

was  recommended  by  Strutzlei  in   1834,  Earle  in  1843,  and  Apelt  in  1853. 
Bohl    .     .     .     has  employed  it  simultaneously  with  creosote." 


Processes  for  Wood-preservation.  195 

camphor,  the  essential  oils  of  lemon,  bergamot,  orange,  lavender, 
and  rosemary  ;  and  of  coloring  materials  a  neutral  sulphate  pre- 
pared from  indigo,  and  an  aqueous  solution  of  the  coloring  principle 
of  yellow-wood.  Of  resinous  substances,  he  procured  a  considerable 
absorption  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  both  pure  and  crude.  By  intro- 
ducing the  chlorides  of  lime  and  magnesia,  he  proposed  to  give  an 
unnatural  elasticity  and  flexibility  to  wood  :  by  using  the  deliques- 
cent salts,  he  sought  to  render  it  incombustible ;  and  finally,  by 
using  various  solutions  that  give  precipitates  the  base  of  which  is 
silica,  he  attempted  to  secure  a  kind  -of  petrification. 

773.  He  at  first  gave  preference  to  the  pyrolignite  of  iron,  ob- 
tained by  exposing  scraps  of  iron  to  the  action  of  the  crude  acetic 
acid  obtained  from  wood  by  distillation.     He  afterwards  abandoned 
this  for  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  instead  of  absorption 
by  the  living  tree,  he  injected  the  wood  as  follows : 

774.  The  logs  still  full  of  sap  and  with  the  bark  still  on,  were 
placed  upon  skids,  and  a  collar  fitted  closely  to  one  end.     The  solu- 
tion was  then  forced  through  the  pores,  either  by  pumps  cr  by  hy- 
drostatic pressure,  the  wood  being  still  fresh  and  full  of  sap.     It  is 
found  that  solid  woods,  like  the  cherry,  oak,  etc.,  will  not  receive 
the  solution  in  the  heart-wood,  and  that  the  process  affords  but  par- 
tial benefit;  while  in  other  kinds  the  success  is  very  great,  the 
woods  thus  prepared  lasting  two,  three,  and  even  five  times  longer 
as  railway  ties,  and  for  other  like  exposures,  than  that  which  has 
not  been  treated.     This  process  has  been  largely  ust  d  in  France, 
and  its  inventor,  unlike  many  discoverers,  realized  its  benefits  in 
his  lifetime.     He  died  in  1871,  leaving  quite  a  fortune  acquired 
from  his  patents. 

775.  This  process  has  been  also   much  employed  in  Belgium 
Germany,  and  Switzerland,  in  preparing  fir  timbers  for  telegraph 
poles,  and  many  other  uses.     After  injection,  the  wood  should  be 
seasoned  before  using,  which  it  does  very  readily,  becoming  quite 
light  and  portable.     It  is  claimed  that  the  sulphate  of  copper  be- 
comes fixed  in  the  wood,  somewhat  like  the  mordant  in  dyes,  so  as 
not  to  dissolve  out  in  fresh  water,  although  in  sea  water  it  appears 
to  gradually  lose  its  antiseptic  qualities  by  prolonged  exposure. 
The  amount  of  this  salt  absorbed  is  found  to  be  notably  diminished 
by  the  presence  of  iron,  or  of  certain  saline  solutions,  or  of  carbonic 


196  Processes  for  Wood  preservation. 

acid.     It  is  less  adapted  to  dry  wood  than  to  that  newly  cut,  if,  in- 
deed, it  is  not  limited  to  the  latter.1 

776.  It  is  found  that  the  sulphate  of  copper  penetrates  with  great 
difficulty  into  oak,  the  ends  only  absorbing  to  some  extent  along  the 
spongy  layers  of  the  spring  growth,  while  the  hard  layers  of  wood 
formed  later  in  the  season  do  not  absorb  the  least.     Elm  will  absorb 
very  well,  excepting  in  the  close  firm  knots.     Beech  will  admit  of 
very  complete  penetration  in  every  part.     Pine  will  absorb  only  in 
the  sap  wood.     Locust  wholly  resists  penetration.     Ash  is  in  about 
the  same  class  with  oak,  and  so  is  the  chestnut.     Birch,  when  sea- 
soned, may  be  prepared  very  well,  and  poplar  the  most  completely 
of  all. 

777.  The  Burnett  Process*     This  was  first  brought  to  notice  be- 
tween the  years  1838  and  1840  by  Sir  William  Burnett,  formerly 
Director  General  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  British  Navy. 
It  consists  in  an  injection  of  the  chloride  of  zinc,  at*  the  rate  of  1 
pound  to  9  or  10  gallons  of  water,  under  a  pressure  of  150  pounds 
to  the  inch.     This  salt,  although  soluble,  does  not  easily  come  out 
when  exposed  to  the  weather  or  buried  in  the  ground.    It  is  claimed 
to  render  wood  uninflammable.    The  cost  is  about  6  to  8  cents  a  cubic 
foot.    Extensive  works  have  been  constructed  for  the  preparation  of 
wood  by  this  process,  and  very  favorable  testimonials  have  been  of- 
fered in  its  favor.     A  concentrated  solution  is  sold  at  5s.  per  gallon 
in  London,  to  be  diluted  with  40  gallons  of  water  for  use  by  this 
process,  with  instructions  and  license  to  use. 

778.  By  Carey's  Process  (1829),  a  mixture  of  salt  powdered  char- 
coal and  animal  or  vegetable  oil  is  introduced  into  timber  by  holes 
in  various  parts,  and  the  holes  are  then  closed.     Various  patents 
have  been  granted  for  inserting  preservative  substances  in  the  wood, 
such  as  coal  tar  and  pulverized  mineral  substances,  more  or  less 
soluble  and  antiseptic  in  their  nature. 

779.  TJie  Hatzfeld  Process.    From  the  fact  that  oak  timbers  buried 
in  contact  with  ochres  and  the  salts  of  iron  acquire  great  durability, 
apparently  from  the  reaction  between  the  tannin  of  the  wood  and 
iron,  Mr.  H.  proposes  to  inject  various  woods  with  tannic  acid,  and 
then  with  the  pyrolignite  of  iron,  thus  assimilating  the  wood  to  the 

1  Raist,  in  Dinner's  Polytechnic  Journal,  1801,  Vol.  162,  p.  397.     See  ib., 
18ol,  Vol.  120,  p.  140;  123,  p.  223. 


Processes  for  Wood-preservation.  197 

condition  of  oak  long  buried.  It  is  claimed  to  be  particularly 
serviceable  for  mining  timbers  and  the  like,  much  exposed  to  moist- 
ure, and  therefore  liable  to  decay.  It  is  understood  that  this  process 
is  being  largely  adopted  by  the  Eastern  Railway  in  France  and  by 
the  telegraph  service,  under  the  co-operation  and  authority  of  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior. 

780.  The  Houtui  and  Boutigny  Process,  aims  to  hermetically  close 
the  ends  of  tho  wood,  so  as  to  neutralize  the  property  of  absorbing 
moisture.    This  might  be  done,  either  by  covering  with  some  hydro- 
carbon, as,  for  example,  coal  oil,  or  by  charring  the  end,  and  then 
plunging  it,  while  hot,  in  a  melted  mixture  of  pitch,  tar,  ana  gum- 
lac,  or  by  covering  the  whole  piece  with  tar  in  the  usual  manner. 

781.  TJie  Kyanlzing  Process.     On  the  31st  of  March,  1832,  Mr. 
John  H.  Kyan  took  out  an  English  patent  for  a  process  for  prevent- 
ing timber  from  decay,  by  penetrating  the  tissues  with  a  solution 
of  the  bi-chloride  of  mercury,  or  "corrosive  sublimate."1     This  was 
done  by  placing  the  timber  in  large  tanks,  so  that  it  could  not  float, 
and  then  submerging  it  with  the  solution  for  about  a  week.     It  was 
afterwards  found  necessary  to  apply  pressure,  equal  to  about  100 
pounds  to  the  inch.     The  strength  of  the  solution  was  finally  fixed 
at  about  1  pound  to  15  gallons  of  water,  although  as  strong  as  1 
pound  to  2  gallons  had  been  used. 

782.  There  appear  to  be  still  conflicting  facts  for  and  against  this 
method,  and  although  formerly  much  practiced,  it  is  now  seldom 
used.     The  value  of  corrosive  sublimate  as  ti  wash  to  kill  dry-rot, 
and  to  prevent  insect  injuries  in  wood,  had  been  long  known,  and  it 
is  still  employed  by  botanists  for  preserving  dried  specimens  from 
insects.     Its  agency  as  an  antiseptic  was  ascribed  to  the  coagulation 
of  albumen  in  the  tissues  of  the  wood,  and  perhaps  the  differences  in 
effect  were  due  to  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  this  material  in 
the  wood,  or  in  permeability  of  the  pores  by  which  it  could  be 
reached.     The  principal  objections  against  this  process  were  its  ex- 
pense and  the  exceedingly  poisonous  nature  of  the  material  used, 
which  rendered  it  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  workmen  em- 
ployed. 

783.  The  Margary  Process,  patented  in  England  iu  1838,  consists 
in  immersing  in  a  solution  of  acetate  or  sulphate  of  copper. 

1This  material  had  been  proposed  by  Knowles  and  Davy  in  1821,  but  not 
practically  applied.     In  18i7,  Letellier  proposed  to  use  it  with  gelatine. 


198  Processes  for  Wood-preservation. 

784.  The  Payne  Process,  patented  in  England  in  1841.     This  con- 
sists in  using  two  solutions,  one  after  the  other,  and  both  soluble, 
but  forming  an  insoluble  substance  within  the  wood.     The  earthy  or 
metallic  solution  is  first  introduced  under  pressure ;  after  which  the 
decomposing  fluid  is  forced  in.     The  sulphate  of  iron  and  carbonate 
of  soda  are  said  to  form  the  insoluble  compound  in  the  pores  of  the 
wood.     He  tried  a  mixture  of  the  sulphate  of  barium  or  of  calcium 
with  the  sulphate  of  iron,  and  various  other  compounds.     The  pro- 
cess was  costly  and  imperfect,  and  is  now  abandoned.1 

785.  By  Prechtl's  Process  (1822)  the  wood  is  first  exposed  to  the 
vapor  of  water  alone,  and  then  to  that  of  a  mixture  of  tar  and 
water. 

786.  The  Robbings  Process 2  consists  in  first  removing  the  surface 
moisture  of  the  wood  by  heat,  and  then  thoroughly  impregnating 
and  saturating  the  pores  and  fibers  by  oleaginous  vapors,  as  of  coal- 
tar,  resin,  or  other  substances,  the  temperature  being  from  212°  to 
250°  (F.)  for  the  former,  and  about  300°  or  more  for  the  latter  part 
of  the  process. 

787.  The  Tait  Process  consists  in  saturating  the  pores  of  the  wood 
with  a  concentrated  solution  of  bi-sulphate  of  lime  or  baryta,  the 
same  being  rendered  soluble  by  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  gas  under 
pressure,  or  by  refrigeration,  and  being  made  insoluble  as  a  neutral 
sulphate,  when  the  pressure  or  excess  of  gas  is  removed. 

788.  The  Thilmamj  Process 3  consists  in  saturating  the  wood  first 
with  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  followed  by  one  of  the 
muriate  of  barytes,  the  intention  being  to  form  an  insoluble  sulphate 
of  barytes  within  the  wood. 

789.  The  following  application  has  been  recommended  as  valuable 
in  a  German  journal :   "  Melt  12  pounds  of  resin,  and  add  12  pints 
of  whale  oil  and  3  pounds  of  sulphur;  mix  an  ochre  of  the  color 
desired,  mix  very  thoroughly  in  oil,   and  add.     Apply  at  first  a 
light  coat  white  hot,  and  in  two  or  three  days,  when  well  dried,  a 
second  and  a  third  one."    This  is  intended  for  fences  and  other 
wood-work  much  exposed. 

1  Boston  City  Docs.  No.  100,  1873  ;  in  a  Prize  Essay  by  Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke, 
p.  15. 

2  Patents  were  taken  out  by  Louis  S.  Bobbins,  April  4,  18G5;  April  27, 
1860;  July  20,  1875,  and  Dec.  21,  1880. 

3  Patented  by  W.  Thihnany,  May  23,  1876. 


Production  of  Turpentine,  etc.  199 

790.  The  following  recipe  is  from  Dingler's  Polytechnic  Journal, 
and  is  intended  for  piles  and  posts :   "  Take  50  parts  of  rosin,  40  of 
finely  powdered  chalk,  300  (more  or  less)  of  fine  white  sharp  sand, 
4  of  linseed  oil,  1  of  native  red  oxyde  of  copper,  and  1  of  sulphuric 
acid.     First  heat  the  resin,  chalk,  sand,  and  oil,  then  add  the  oxyde 
and  with  care  the  acid ;  stir  carefully,  and  apply  as  a  paint  while 
still  hot.     If  not  liquid  enough,  add  oil."     This  coating  when  cold 
and  dry  is  very  hard,  and  it  is  claimed  to  be  very  durable. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

RESINOUS   AND    OTHER  PRODUCTS  OF   CONIFERS. 

Naval  Stores. 

791.  This  term,  as  used  in  commerce,  includes  the  several  resinous 
products  of  pine  forests,  and  particularly  the  oil  or  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, distilled  from  crude  turpentine  ;  rosin,  or  the  solid  residuum  of 
this  distillation;   tar,  obtained  by  the  combustion  of  resinous  woods 
or  refuse  materials,  containing  resin,  in  smothered  fires,  or  their  ex- 
posure to  heat  externally  applied,  and  pitch,  which  differs  chiefly 
from  tar  in  being  solid  when  cold. 

792.  Formerly,  crude  turpentine  was  an  article  of  commerce,  and 
its  distillation  was  carried  on  in  large  establishments  near  the  cen- 
ters of  trade ;   but  in  recent  years  local  distilleries  have  been  erected 
near  the  forests  where  the  raw  material  is  collected,  and  the  products 
are  sent  to  market  prepared  for  use. 

Hie  Production  of  Turpentine  and  other  Resinous  Materials. 

793.  When  we  cut  through  the  bark  into  the  outer  wood  of  a 
pine,  a  fir,  or  a  spruce  tree,1  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  there 
slowly  exudes  from  the  wound  a  viscid  and  at  first  colorless  and 
transparent  substance,  known  in  the  pine  as  "  turpentine."     Upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  it  absorbs  oxygen  and  becomes  whitish,  opaque,  and 
solid.     When  distilled  with  a  little  water,  the  volatile  portion  passes 
off  with  the  vapor,  and  when  condensed,  it  separates  and  becomes 
a  limpid,  volatile,  and  strongly  scented  liquid,  known  as  the  spirits 
of  turpentine.     The  portion  not  volatile,  and  remaining  in  the  still, 

1  The  Taxus  does  not  have  resiniferous  canals  in  its  wood.  They  are  found 
in  the  genera  Cedrus,  Abies,  Pinns,  Larix,  Picca,  Pseudolarlx,  Thuja,  Pinus, 
Cupressus,  Liotia,  Araucaria,  etc.,  both  in  the  root  and  stem. 


200      Production  of  Turpentine  in  the  Southern  States. 

hardens  on  cooling,  and  becomes  a  more  or  less  translucent  and 
sometimes  almost  transparent  solid,  of  various  shades  of  yellow  and 
brown,  known  in  commerce  as  "  msin." 

794.  Both  of  these  products  are  of  important  use  in  the  arts,  the 
former  being  much   used  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,   india- 
rubber  goods,  patent  leather,  etc.,  and  in  painting.     It  is  an  ingre- 
dient in  "  camphine"  and  other  burning  fluids,  and  is  employed  in 
medicine.     Rosin  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  can- 
dles, paper,  sealing-wax,  and  a  vast  variety  of  other  articles,  and 
when  it  can  be  cheaply  procured,  it  makes  an  excellent  illuminating 
gas.     Before  the  late  war,  many  villages  and  cities  were  lighted  by 
gas  made  wholly  from  rosin,  but  the  high  prices  that  this  event 
occasioned  made  it  necessary  to  substitute  the  cannel-coals. 

795.  In  former  times,  turpentine  was  produced  to  a  limited  extent 
from  the  yellow  or  Norway  pine  (Pinus  resinosa),  and  the  pitch 
pine  (P.  rigida),  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States;  but  the  chief 
source  of  supply  within  the  United  States  is  now  almost  wholly  de- 
rived from   the   long-leaved  or  yellow  pine  (P.   australis)  of  the 
Southern  States. 

796.  The  "Pine  Belt"  extends  from  a  little  south  of  the  Roanoke 
river,  in  North  Carolina,  through  that  State,  South  Carolina,  Geor- 
gia, Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  into  the  edge  of  Texas. 
It  is  also  found  extensively  in  Florida.     This  belt  is  generally  from 
50  to  150  miles  from  the  coast,  and  of  variable  width,  the  borders 
being  often  not  sharply  defined,  and  the  whole  blended  more  or  less 
with  other  trees.     Sometimes  it  occurs  in  detached  masses  of  consid- 
erable extent.     The  differences  that  occur  in  its  distribution  within 
these  limits  will  probably  be  found  due  to  geological  causes. 

797.  The  "  Pine  Belt,"  where  it  begins  on  the  north,  is  about  fifty 
miles  wide,  but  as  it  extends  further  south  and  west  it  widens  in 
some  places  to  twice  this  width.     This  species  thrives  best  on  mod- 
erately hilly,  dry,  and  sandy  soils.     In  level  regions  with  a  retentive 
sub-soil  it  does  not  succeed  as  well  as  other  species. 

798.  The  mode  of  procuring  turpentine,  as   heretofore   and  at 
present  practiced,  is  wasteful  and  destructive,  as  compared  with  pro- 
cesses we  will  presently  describe,  and  is  generally  as  follows  : 

799.  In  winter  the  trees  are  "  boxed,"  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the 
side,  about  three  inches  wide,  six  inches  deep,  and  twelve  inches 
long,  near  the  foot  of  the  tree,  forming  a  cavity  that  will  hold  about 


Production  of  Turpentine:  Improved  Methods.        201 

three  pints.  The  turpentine  begins  to  flow  early  in  the  spring,  and 
continues  till  towards  the  end  of  summer.  The  incisions  are  en- 
larged and  extended  higher  up,  about  once  in  a  week  or  ten  days,  and 
sometimes  two  or  three  "  boxes  "  are  cut  in  the  same  tree.  The 
crude  turpentine  is  dipped  out  of  the  boxes,  and  scraped  off  from 
the  trees  from  time  to  time,  and  now  the  greater  part  is  distilled 
near  the  forests,  and  the  refined  products  sent  from  thence  to  the 
markets. 

800.  In  North  Carolina,  the  turpentine  is  collected  about  once  a 
mouth,  and  10,000  trees  will  in  a  good  season  yield  50  barrels  of 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  200  barrels  of  rosin.     In  other  regions, 
the  trees  are  cut  from  twenty  to  thirty  times  in  a  season,  and  yield 
from  eight  to  ten  dippings.     A  man  will  "chip "from  10,000  to 
12,000  boxes  in  a  week,  as  a  task.     From  1,000  boxes  they  dip 
from  three  to  five  barrels,  of  280  pounds  each. 

801.  The  yield  per  box  in  soft  turpentine  is  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds,  or  twenty  to  twenty-five  to  the  tree  of  usual  size.     A  barrel 
of  crude  turpentine  will  yield  five  gallons  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  from  sixty-two  to  sixty-five  per  cent  of  its  bulk  in  rosin.     The  pro- 
duct of  the  first  year  yields  a  fine  light  resin,  and  it  grows  darker 
from  year  to  year.     A  still  of  forty  barrels  capacity,  will  distill  the 
crude  product  of  about  350,000  boxes. 

802.  Turpentine  is  produced  to  advantage  only  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate, and  in  a  given  place,  to  better  advantage  in  hot  and  humid 
seasons  than  in  those  that  are  cold  and  dry. 

803.  Trees  exposed  to  the  air  and  the  sun  yield  better  than  those 
that  are  crowded  and  shaded,  and  those  with  a  well -developed  top 
and  well-set  with  branches  much  better  than  those  with  thin  and 
light  foliage. 

804.  By   the   improved   methods   now   in   use   in   Europe,  and 
especially  in  the  south-western  part  of  France,  the  production  of 
crude  turpentine  (there  obtained  from  the  Pinus  pinaster,  or  "  mari- 
time pine")  is  continued  many  years  without  killing  the  trees,  and 
by  the  following  method : 

805.  In  winter  the  rough  bark  is  smoothed  off  with  a  drawing- 
knife,  and  as  spring  approaches,  a  light  incision   is  made,  four  or 
five  inches  wide  and  about  fifteen  inches  long,  through  the  bark  and 
a  little  into  the  oufer  wood.     This  is  clone  with  a  sharp  instrument 
having  a  convex  edge.     At  the  bottom  a  lip  of  zinc  is  driven  in, 


202  French  Method  of  procuring  Turpentine. 

and  under  this  a  small  earthern  jar,  glazed  on  the  inside  and  shaped 

like  a  flower-pot,  is  placed. 

800.  About  once  a  week  the  cutting  is  renewed,  by  taking  off  a 

thin  slice  of  wood  a  little  deeper 
and  an  inch  or  two  higher  up, 
and  this  is  renewed  through  the 
warm  season,  and  from  year  to 
year.  There  are  two  or  more  of 
these  incisions  on  each  tree,  but 
never  wider  than  at  first  begun. 
They  are  carried  up  till  they  are 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  but 
there  is  always  left  a  strip  of 
bark,  at  least  as  wide,  between 
them.  Gradually  the  wood  grow- 
ing only  under  this  bark,  will  close 
over  the  incisions,  generally  leav- 
ing a  deep  crevice  to  show  its 
place.  This  wood  is  again  cut 
into  long,  narrow  bands  as  be- 
fore, and  so  for  a  long  period. 
807.  The  general  growth  of  the 

118.  The  Maritime  Pine  (Pinus  pinaster). 

tree  is  checked,  but  the  quality 

of  the  wood  improved  by  this  process.  It  appears  to  hasten  its 
maturity,  and  it  no  doubt  shortens  its  life ;  but  such  trees  are  kept 
in  production  from  the  age  of  twenty  years  till  they  are  fifty  or  sixty 
years  old.  It  is,  however,  generally  more  profitable  to  cut  them 
when  of  good  size  for  timber,  to  make  room  for  those  that  are  com- 
ing up  from  self-seeding,  and  that  will  be  more  productive. 

808.  As  the  incisions  extend  up,  the  earthern  jars  are  hung 
higher  up,  and  they  are  emptied  from  time  to  time.  The  whitish 
opaque  incrustation  is  scraped  off  in  the  fall,  and  the  jars  are  left 
bottom  upwards  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  till  spring.  The  work  of 
"resinage"  is  commonly  done  upon  shares,  and  a  division  is  made 
between  the  proprietor  and  the  "resineur"  after  the  sales  are  made. 
Up  to  a  certain  price,  the  division  is  equal,  but  at  high  rates  the  pro- 
prietor receives  the  greater  share  of  the  profits. 


Tar-making:  Pitch:  Lamp-black,  etc.  203 

Tar-manufacture. 

809.  In  making  charcoal  from  highly  resinous  woods,  tar  is  pro- 
duced, in  notable  quantities  ;  and  for  collecting  this  a  circular  floor 
of  masonry  is  prepared,  sloping  to  a  central  point,  from  whence  it 
flows  out  through  a  pipe  into  a  reservoir  on  one  side  from  which  it 
may  be  dipped. 


119.  Foundation  of  a  Tar-kiln,  in  which  a,  d,  i?  a  sloping  brick  or  stone  hearth, 
with  a  grating  at  d,  through  which  the  tar  passes,  and  is  conducted  by  the 
pipe,  6,  to  the  reservoir,  c. 

810.  By  a  more  slovenly  and  wasteful  process,  the  tar  is  allowed 
to  ooze  out  into  gutters  in  the  soil,  and  is  led  from  these  into  barrels 
suDk  in  the  ground. 

811.  In  the  more  refined  methods  of  tar-making,  the  knots,  resin- 
ous wood,  or  refuse  products  of  the  turpentine  works  are  put  into 
large  iron  receivers  set  in  masonry,  so  that  heat  may  be  applied  ex- 
ternally by  fire  in  an  arch.     A  pipe  leads  from  the  bottom  of  these 
receivers  for  carrying  off  the   tar.     Another  pipe,  near  the  top, 
conducts  away   the  volatile  portions,  which  are  condensed,  as  in 
common  distillation. 

812.  Pitch  is  simply  tar  boiled  down  till  it  will  become  solid  when 
cold.     Its  principal  use  is  in  ship-building,  for  rendering  the  seams 
under  water  and  the  rigging  exposed  to  the  weather  impervious  to 
water.     It  is  also  used  in  roofing  and  elsewhere  for  similar  pur- 
poses. 

813.  Lamp-black  is  the  smoke  of  resinous  woods,  or  of  the  refuse 
strainings  of  rosin.     When  these  are  burned,  the  smoke  is  passed 
into  the  chambers  lined  with  coarse  cloths,  which  allow  the  gases  to 
escape,  but  intercept  the  carbonaceous  portion,  which  is  collected 
from  time  to  time. 

814.  Canada  Balsam  is  obtained  from  the  blisters  that  form  in  the 
bark  of  the  Abies  balsamea,  or  balsam-fir,   found  growing  in  the 
swamps  of  the  Northern  Spates  and  in  Canada.    It  is  used  medicin- 
ally, and  is  an  officinal  article  in  the  pharmacopeias.  Among  other 


204  Perfume  from  Pine-Sap. 

officinal  resinous  products  of  conifers  may  be  mentioned  Burgundy 
pitch,  from  Abies  excelsa,  or  Norway  spruce  ;  Canada  pitch,  from  the 
Tsuja  CctnadensiSy  or  hemlock;  Venice  turpentine,  from  the  Larix 
Europea,  or  larch ;  gum  sandarac,  from  the  CaUitris  quadrivalvis ; 
frankincense,  from  the  Pinus  tedia,  etc.. 

815.  Various  essential  oils  are  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the 
hemlock,  cedar,  savin,  juniper,  spruce,  and  other  evergreens,  and 
are  used  medicinally.     It  is  probable  that  amber  is  a  resinous  pro- 
duct of  a  coniferous  tree,  although  found  only  in  a  fossil  form. 
Kauri  is  the  resin  of  the  Dammctra  amtralis,  but  gathered  only  from 
the  soil  formerly  covered  by  forests  of  the  kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand. 

Perfume  from  Pine  Sap. 

816.  A  perfume  resembling  that  from  the  vanilla  bean,  and  ap- 
plicable to  the  same  uses,  has  in  recent  years  been  obtained  from 
the  sap  of  the  pine  and  other  conifers.     The  substance  has  been 
called  coniferin,  and  is  collected  and  prepared  as  follows : 

817.  As  the  trees  are  cut  down  in  the  summer  months  (about 
June  1-to  August  Jo),  the  bark  is  taken  off,  and  the  sap  or  cambium 
is  scraped  off  from   the  trunk  with  some  sharp  instrument,  wiped 
off  upon  a  sponge  and  squeezed  into  a  tin  pail.     A  tree  of  vigorous 
growth  and  medium  size  will  yield  from  four  to  five  litres  of  sap 
(about  as  many  quarts),  and  where  the  soil  is  damp  and  fertile 
nearly  twice  as  much.     It  is  greater  when  gathered  in  warm  damp 
weather  than  when  it  is  cold  and  dry. 

818.  The  sap,  when  first  collected,  is  milky  and  clouded,  and 
more  or  less  mixed  with  impurities,  and  it  contains  a  kind  of  glu- 
cose, albumen,  and  coniferiu.    It  would  soon  ferment  and  spoil,  and 
must  be  strained,  after  boiling  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  to  coagulate 
the  albumen.    It  is  then  evaporated  down  to  one-fifth  of  its  volume, 
when  it  is  clear  and  of  a  yellowish  color.     It  is  then  set  aside  over 
night  in  a  cool  place,  when  little  white  crystals  of  coniferin  will  de- 
posit.   These  are  separated  by  straining  and  pressing  out  the  liquid 
through  cloths. 

819.  A  person  will  collect  about  three  to  four  pints  in  a  day. 
The  price  of  the  dry  crystalline  substance,  as  prepared  in  the  forest, 
is  about  $18.60  to  the  pound  avoirdupois.     The  forest  of  Murat,  in 
France,  furnishes  from  twenty-five  to  forty  pounds  a  year.     The 
coniferin  is  taken  to  Paris,  and  there,  in  chemical  laboratories,  it  is 


Use  of  Wood  in  Paper-making.  205 

converted   into  the  material  so    highly  prized  for  flavoring  and 
perfume. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

USE   OF   WOOD   IN   THE   MANUFACTURE   OF  PAPER. 

820.  In  recent   years,  the  employment  of  wood  for  paper  has 
come  into  extensive  use,  both  in  Europe  and  America.     For  this 
purpose  it  must  first  be  reduced  to  pulp,  and  mixed  with  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  rags.     The  chief  kinds  used  in  this  country  are  the  poplar 
and  the  spruce,  and  in  Europe,  besides  these,  various  pines  anol  the 
white  birch.  The  wood  should  be  worked  up  fresh,  and  in  preparing  it 
the  bark  and  defective  or  rotten  parts  must  be  first  taken  off.     There 
are  two  principal  methods  of  reducing  wood  to  pulp — the  mechan- 
ical and  the  chemical ;  and  each  of  these  is  subdivided  into  several 
distinct  processes. 

821.  By  the  more  common  of  the  former,  known  as  the  "  Volter 
Process,"  from  Henry  Volter,  of  Wurtemburg,  who  first  brought 
it  into  successful  use,1  the  wood  is  ground  into  pulp  upon  the  edge 
of  broad  and  large  grindstones  running  vertically  in  water,  the  wood 
being  pressed  firmly  down  sideways  of  the  grain,  by  automatic 
screws,  at  four  or  five  places.     The  feed  is  about  an  inch  in  five 
minutes,  and  the  speed  about  200  revolutions  in  a  minute. 

822.  Of  course  the  power  required  to  run  such  machines  is  very 
great.     The  wood  is  sometimes  boiled  or  steamed  before  grinding, 
and  the  pulp  is  screened  through  fine  wire  cloth,  and  the  coarser 
parts  ground  with  water  between  mill-stone  like  those  for  grinding 
grain.     This  process  began  to  be  successfully  used  about  1846,  and 
is  largely  used,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

823.  By  the  "  Hartmanu  Process"  the  wood  is  ground  between 
two  smaller  vertical  stones,  the  approach  being  secured  by  a  weight. 
By  the  "  Siebrecht  Process"  the  grinding  is  done  upon  a  great  hori- 
zontal stone,  and  the  wood  is  held  down  by  hydraulic  pressure. 
There  are  other  processes  by  which  the  wood  is  sawn  into  short 
lengths,  and  then  crushed  under  heavy  rollers,  or  the  fibers  are  torn 

1  The  inventor  of  this  process  was  F.  G.  Keller,  who  took  out  a  patent  in 
Germany,  in  1844,  for  a  wood-pulp  grind!  112  machine,  but  not  having  the  cap- 
ital sold  out  his  interest.  H>  afterwards  fell  into  indigence  and  was  aided 
by  a  subscription  among  the  German  paper-makers. 


206  Use  of  Wood  in  Paper-making. 

obliquely  off  by  saws,  and  in  both  of  these  the  wood  is  ground  in  a 
mill  before  being  used. 

824.  By  the  chemical  process,  which  is  more  recent  and  more 
costly,  but  which  produces  a  better  result,  the  wood  is  first  cut  into 
short  chips  by  heavy  revolving  planes,  and  then  macerated  in  large 
and  strong  boilers,  with  caustic  soda,  and  under  a  pressure  of  10  or  12 
atmospheres.     By  the  "Sinclair  Process"  this  is  done  in  upright 
boilers.     By  the  "  Lee  Process"  it  is  done  in  larger  boilers,  that  are 
horizontal.     By  the  "Fry  Process"  water  alone  is  used,  under  a 
pressure  of  5  or  6  atmospheres,  and  saw-dust  is  thus  made  avail- 
able as  a  material.     The  product  is  a  brown  pulp,  and  used  for  wrap- 
ping paper  only. 

825.  Wood-pulp  is  chiefly  used  for  making  wrapping  and  news- 
paper, wall-papers,  and  the  like.     It  is  sometimes  used  for  envelopes, 
but  as  at  present  made  it  is  scarcely  proper  for  writing-paper,  nor 
for  the  grades  required  in  finer  book-work.     But  the  consumption  for 
these  is  enormous,  and  constantly  increasing,  and  these  industries 
are  here  noticed  chiefly  as  affording  a  profitable  business  in  forest 
culture. 

826.  We  have  elsewhere  (p.  90)  noticed  the  strong  tendency  of 
poplars  to  come  up  as  second  growth  where  pines  have  been  cut 
away,  and  where  the  soil  has  been  injured  by  forest  fires,  so  as  to  be 
unprofitable  for  the  cultivation  of  common  field  crops.     When  pro- 
tected, such  poplar  groves  properly  thinned  out  grow  rapidly,  and 
in  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  will  be  fit  to  cut  for  paper-pulp.     They 
will  readily  reproduce  themselves  from  sprouts,  and  the  cuttings 
should  be  so  arranged,  if  possible,  that  the  trees  be  kept  at  the  same 
age,  and  be  cut  off  down  to  the  limit  of  smallest  available  size  in 
the  same  year. 

827.  Saw-dust  of  red-cedar  is   used   in   the  coarse  thick  paper 
placed  under  carpets,  upon  the  theory  that  it  will  prevent  injuries 
from  moths. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

TANNING   MATERIALS. 

828.  Supplies  of  material  for  tanning  leather  are  derived  from 
the  forests,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  bark,  or  their  extracts;  but  oc- 
casionally other  materials  are  used,  such  as  valonia,  or  the  acorn- 
cups  of  an  oak  (Qmrcus  ceyilops),  growing  in  Greece  and  Asia-Minor, 


Tanning  Materials.  207 

nut-galls  from  the  Levant,  the  leaves  of  the  sumac,  and  extracts 
prepared  from  various  herbaceous  plants.  The  tanning  principle  is 
not  often  found  in  the  wood,  nor  in  plants  having  poisonous  quali- 
ties or  milky  juices,  and  as  a  general  rule  it  is  greater  in  the  bark 
of  young  oak  trees  than  of  old  ones,  and  more  in  a  deep  rich  soil 
than  in  trees  grown  upon  sterile  land. 

829.  The  principal  supply  of  oak-bark  used  in  Europe  for  tanning 
purposes  is  from  the   Quercus  pedunculate,  and   Q.  sessilifolia,  the 
common  English  oaks.     The  relative  value  of  different  barks  used 
in  England  for  tanning  is  about  as  follows:  Oak-coppice,  300;  chest- 
nut, 243;  birch,  162;  mountain  ash,  125 ;  larch,  131.     The  spruce 
also  furnishes  some  tanning  material,  and  is  used  with  oak.     By 
peeling,  oak-coppice  wood  looses  about  one-eight  part  of  its  volume. 

830.  In  the  Northern  States,  the  principal  bark  used  comes  from 
the  hemlock  (Tsuga  Canadensis),  and  immense  quantities  of  timber 
have  been  wasted  by  being  left  after  peeling  to  rot  on  the  ground. 
This  wasteful  practice  is  still  continued  in  some  places.     In  the 
southern  part  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Maryland,  and  southward,   as 
also  in  many  parts  of  the  Western  States,  and  to  less  extent  in 
New  England  and  New  York,  the  red  or  black  oaks  have  furnished 
most  of  the  barks  used  for  tanning. 

831.  Tanning-extract  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  bark,  leeching 
out  the  tannin  with  hot  water,  and  evaporating  in  vacuum-pans  down 
to  the  consistence  of  syrup.     In  this  state  it  is  sent  to  market  in 
barrels  and  sold  by  the  pound, 

832.  When  oak  is  grown  in   coppices  in  Europe,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  tan-bark,  the  coppices  may  be  cut  on  damp  soils  (where 
the  bark  tends  to  become  covered  with  mosses,  and  to  become  rough) , 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  years.     As  a  general  rule,  however,  it  is  al- 
lowed to  grow  about  twenty  years.     In  older  trees  the  rough  corky 
bark  is  of  but  little  value.     The  best  comes  from  trees  in  a  healthy 
growing  condition,  with  a  thick  juicy  liber,  and  that  are  cut  in  the 
spring  before  the  leaves  have  expanded. 

833.  In  peeling  oak-coppice,  the  workmen  endeavor  to  take  it  as 
far  as  they  can  from  the  standing  tree.     If  young  trees  are  left  a 
short  time  after  felling,  the  bark  becomes  adherent,  and  the  process 
difficult.     The  work  of  peeling  is  most  easily  carried  on  in  warm 
humid  weather,  and  is  interrupted  by  cold,  dry  winds.     The  upper 
part  and  branches  peel  easier  than  the  main  trunk,  and  they  save 


208  Tanning  Materials :  Nomaison  Process. 

the  bark  of  all  that  can  be  obtained.  It  is  first  exposed  to  the 
sun,  with  the  inside  up,  for  a  short  time,  and  is  then  piled  with  the 
outer  side  up  until  dry.  It  is  estimated  that  the  trees  yield  about 
five  per  cent  of  their  weight  in  bark,  and  that  the  latter  looses 
about  one-third  of  its  weight  in  drying. 

834.  Oak  bark  is  much  injured  by  rains,  and  even  when  care- 
fully dried  and  housed  it  deteriorates  by  keeping.     Quercitron  (the 
bark  of  Q.  cocdnea)  used  for  dyeing  yellow,  and  for  tanning,  is  usu- 
ally ground  and  sold  in  sacks.     Oak  wood,  when  peeled,  is  used  for 
various  manufacturing  purposes,  and  for  firewood  and  charcoal. 

The  Peeling  of  Oak  Bark  by  the  aid  of  Heat. 

835.  The  inconvenience  of  crowding  the  work  of  peeling  into  a 
busy  season  of  the  year,  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  process  in 
Europe,  by  the  aid  of  which  this  work  can  be  done  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.     It  is  known  from  the  inventor  as  the  "Nomaison  Pro- 
cess"    The  apparatus  consists  of  several  large  iron  receivers  of  thin 
plate  iron,  strong  enough  to  bear  a  moderate  strain,  and  air-tight. 
The  wood  is  placed  in  these,  and  steam  at  about  170°  centigrade 
(338°  Fahr.)  is  admitted  from  a  boiler  so  placed  as  to  serve  several 
of  these  receivers.     They  hold  about  half  a  cord  each,  and  the 
time  required  varies  from  an  hour  and  a  half  to  two  hours  and  a 
half,  according  to  the  season  when  the  wood  is  cut.     It  is  then  taken 
out  and  peeled.     If  the  heat  is  continued  too  long,  the  bark  again 
becomes  adherent. 

836.  One  great  advantage  to  be  gained  by  this  process  in  the 
working  of  coppice- wood  is,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  the  wood 
at  the  season  when  the  greatest  injury  is  done  to  the  stumps  that 
are  to  send  up  a  new  growth.     Careful   experiments   have   been 
made  by  order  of  the  French  and  Prussian  governments  upon  the 
quality  of  the  bark  thus  peeled,  with  favorable  results.     It  is  men- 
tioned in  this  connection  as  of  interest  with  respect  to  the  future 
supplies  of  bark  for  tanning,  as  our  native  woodlands  that  furnish 
this  material  become  scarce. 

Sumac. 

837.  The  leaves  of  the  sumac  contain  a  tanning  material  much 
used  in  dyeing,  and  in  tanning  light  leather,  and  from  six  to  ten 
thousand  tons  are  imported  into  the  United  States  annually  from 


Cultivation  of  the  Sumac.  209 

Europe — chiefly  from  Sicily — for  these  uses,  at  a  cost  of  from  half 
to  three-quarters -of  a  million  of  dollars  per  annum. 

838.  The  Sicilian  sumac  (Elms  coriaria)  thrives  only  in  a  warm 
climate,  where  the  orange,  the  carob,  and  the  pistacia  grow  in  the 
open  air,  and  the  ash  produces  manna.     It  will  bear  an  occasional 
light  frost  in  midwinter.     It  is  particularly  liable  to  injury  from  a 
white  frost  in  spring.     It  is  propagated  from  sprouts  that  come  up  ' 
around  the  mature  shrubs.     They  are  taken  off  in  December  and 
January,  and  set  in  rows,  which  are  ridged  up,  and  well  cultivated 
at  intervals  through  the  first  year,  but  it  does  not  begin  to  produce 
till  the  third  year. 

839.  The  leaves  are  harvested  by  trimming  the  shoots  that  spring 
up  around  the  main  stem,  a  process  that  is  done   by  men  with  a 
pruning-hook,  or  by  picking  the  leaves  by  hand,  which  is  done  by 
women  and  children,  during  the  summer.     The  leaves  and  trimmings 
are  then  dried,  and  the  leaves  are  beaten  off  from  the  latter  by 
threshing  with  flails,  or  treading  of  animals,  preference  being  given 
to  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day,  as  the  leaves  then  separate  most 
easily.     The  best  qualities  are  baled  with  the  leaves  entire,  and  with- 
out their  stems.     The  next  grade  has  the  leaves  bruised,  with  the 
stems  adhering;  the  next,  is  the  leaf  crop  of  one-year  old  plants, 
while  the  lowest  and  poorest  grade  is  from  the  tops  of  branches 
gathered  in  the  beginning  of  autumn. 

840.  In  any  attempt  to  cultivate  this  species  in  the  United  States, 
success  could  only  be  expected  from  fresh  cuttings,  planted  in  the 
southern  border  of  the  Gulf  States  and  in  Southern  California.     Of 
native  species  we  have  three  that  are  used  to  some  extent  for  tan- 
ning purposes.     They  are,  in  order  of  preference,  tiie  Rhus  glabra, 
or  smooth  sumac,  the  R.  copcdlina,  the  wing-ribbed  or  mountain  sumac, 
and  the  R.  typliina,  or  stag-horn  sumac. 

841.  The  principal  American  sumac  that  is  prepared  for  market 
comes  from  Virginia.     The  leaves  are  picked  by  country  people, 
without  much  regard  to  the  season,  from  the  shrubs  found  growing 
wild,  and  are  dried  and  sold  by  weight  to  the  owners  of  mills  for 
grinding.     The  leaves  should  be  taken  when  full  of  sap,  and  before 
they  turn  red  or  begin  to  wither,  and  especially  before  frost.     After 
being  wilted  in  the  sun,  they  should  be  spread  upon  shelves  or  racks 
to  dry  in  a  shaded  but  airy  place,  and  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
at  least  a  month,  and  in  damp  weather  longer,  before  going  to  mar- 


210  Cultivation  of  the  Sumac. 

ket.  Its  value  is  judged  by  the  color  of  the  leaves,  which  should 
be  of  a  bright  green,  and  the  price  ranges  about  75  cents  per  100 
pounds.  The  quantity  gathered  is  about  7,000  to  8,000  tons.  It  is 
ground  in  close  compartments,  under  revolving  stone  or  wooden 
rollers,  and  is  sent  to  market  in  sacks. 

842.  The  difference  in  quality  between  Sicilian  and  American  su- 
macs is  about  6  to  8  per  cent  of  tannic  acid  in  favor  of  the  former, 
while  its  price  is  about  $50  more  per  ton.     The  native  sumacs  grow 
readily  from  seeds  and  sprouts,  and  when  once  started  might  be 
propagated  with  facility.     It  has  not  yet  been  determined  as  to  the 
differences  that  may  result  from  climate,  but  judging  from  the  ex- 
perience of  Europe,  a  warm  climate,  and  a  southern  slope,  would  be 
more  favorable  than  others,  and  as  it  is  found  growing  wild  in  the 
most  rugged  and  rocky  grounds,  it  may  doubtless  be  cultivated  in 
such  places  with  profit. 

843.  A  considerable  amount  of  sumac  was  formerly  gathered  in 
Connecticut,  and  there  are  still  persons  who  make  it  an  exclusive 
business  to  gather,  dry,  and  thresh  the  leaves  for  market.     It  sells 
in  New  York  and  Boston  at  from  $40  to  $50  per  ton.     It  is  gathered 
entirely  from  the  wild  shrubs,  no  attempt  being  made  at  cultivation. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

DESCRIPTIONS   OF  PARTICULAR  SPECIES. 

844.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  follow  a  systematic  classification  in 
the  following  pages,  nor  to  introduce  botanical  descriptions.     We 
shall  present  some  facts  concerning  the  number  and  distribution  of 
species ;   more  particularly  those  that  appear  worthy  of  attention  in 
forest-culture,  without  attempting  to  notice  those  that  are  of  chief 
interest  for  ornamental  planting,  or  that  are  merely  woody  shrubs. 

The  Oaks*  and  their  related  Species. 

845.  Of  the  natural  order  Cupuliferce  to  which  the  oaks,  beech, 
chestnut,  etc.,  belong,  there  are  about  four  hundred  species.     They 
are  divided  into  three  tribes,  viz:   Betulce,  including  the  birches  and 
alders;  Corylleaz,  including  the  hornbeam,  irouwood,  hazel,  etc.,  and 
the  Quercince,  including  the  oaks,  chestnuts,  and  beeches. 

846.  The  OAKS  are,  by  general  consent,  ranked  by  English  writers 
upon  sylviculture  as  of  first  importance,  on  account  of  the  great 


The  Oaks:  General  Division.  211 

size  to  which  the  more  important  species  grow,  the  vast  age  that 
they  attain,  and  the  hardness  and  durability  of  the  timber.  Since 
the  introduction  of  iron  as  a  building  material,  the  oak  has  lost 
much  of  its  importance  in  ship-building  and  for  structures  requiring 
great  solidity  and  strength,  such  as  bridges  and  large  buildings  for 
business  purposes  or  public  use  in  cities  ;  but  the  better  kinds  of 
oak  will  always  be  valued  among  the  most  desirable  for  forest 
planting,  and  under  favorable  conditions  as  the  most  profitable  that 
can  be  grown. 

847.  The  oaks  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  north  temperate  zone, 
but  some  occur  upon  mountains  within  the  tropics,  in  the  Malay 
archipelago,  and  in  South  America.  None  are  found  in  Australia ; 
one  genus  only  of  the  family  is  found  in  the  south  temperate  zone, 
and  a  few  are  found  within  the  Arctic  circle. 

8-18.  About  250  species  of  the  Quercus,  or  oak  genus,  are  known 
to  botanists.  They  are  arranged  by  De  Candole  *  into  six  sections, 
four  of  which  are  found  only  in  South-eastern  Asia.  About  forty 
species  occur  native  within  the  United  States.  They  may  be  con- 
veniently arranged  into  two  classes,  viz.,  the  "white"  and  the 
"black  "oaks. 

849.  The  white  oaks,  are  so  called  from  the  grayish  or  ash-colored 
tint  of  the  bark,  which  often  tends  to  separate  into  scales.     The 
wood  is  tough,  dense,  and  excellent  for  cooperage,  wagon-making, 
and  other  uses  requiring  closeness  of  grain,  strength,  and  durability. 
The  trees  are  slower  in  growth  than  the  other  divisions  to  be  men- 
tioned, but  owing  to  the  superior  quality  of  the  timber,  they  may 
prove  more  profitable  for  planting,  although  longer  in  coming  to  full 
maturity.     They  are  excellent  for  fuel  and  charcoal,  and  most  of 
them  are  desirable  for  ornamental  planting. 

850.  The  black  oaks,  have  a  bark  which  is  dark,  rough,  and  deeply 
cracked.     The  wood  is  brittle,  porous,  and  a  poor  fuel.     It  is  so 
porous  that  it  can  not  be  used  for  casks  for  holding  liquids.     The 
peduncles  or  fruit  stems  are  short  or  wanting,  and  the  acorns  gener- 
ally ripen  the  second  year,  but  to  this  there  are  some  exceptions. 
Their  growth,  as  compared  with  the  white  oaks,  is  very  rapid,  gen- 
erally as  two  to  one,  and  even  more.     There  is  generally  less  dis^ 
tinction  between  the  heart-wood  and  the  sap-wood,  and  they  occur 

lProdromus,  Vol.  XVI. 


212  Classification  of  the  Oaks. 

principally  in  the  Atlantic  States.     They  far  excel  the  white  oaks 
in  the  tanning  qualities  of  the  bark. 

851.  Michaux  described  twenty -eight  species  of  the~  oak  in  his 
"  Sylva  Americana,"  including  three  introduced  European  species  ; 
and  used  as  the  first  basis  of  subdivision  the  character  of  the  leaves. 
In  the  first  division,  he  placed  the  species  with  beardless  leaves,  and 
in  the  second,  those  in  which  the  lobes  are  terminated  by  a  bristle. 
The  interval  between  blossoming  and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  was 
admitted  as  a  secondary  character,  which,  in  the  first  of  his  divis- 
ions, is  generally  annual,  and  in  the  second  biennial. 

852.  The  species  that  he  described  were  as  follows : 

FIRST  DIVISION  :  Fructification  annual ;  leaves  beardless. 
First  Section:  Leaves  lobed. 

1.  White  oak,  Quercus  alba.  3.  Mossy-cup  oak,  Q.  olivceformis , 

(Common  European  oak,  Q.     4.  Over-cup  white  oak,   Q.   ma- 
robur.  crocarpa. 

European    white     oak,*  Q.     5.  Post  oak,  Q.  obtusitoba. 
robur  pedenculata.  ft.   Over-cup  oak,  Q.  hjrata. 

Second  Section:  Leaves  toothed. 

7.  Swamp  white  oak,   Q.  prinus     10.  Yellow  oak,   Q.  prinus  acu- 

discolor.  miiiata. 

8.  Chestnut  white  oak,  Q.  prinus     11.  Small  chestnut  oak,  Q.  prinus 

palustris.  chinquapin. 

9.  Rock  chestnut  oak,  Q.  prinus 

monticola. 

SECOND  DIVISION  :  Fructification  biennial ;  leaves  mucronated.1 
First  Section :  Leaves  obtuse  or  entire. 

12.  Live  oak,   Q.  virens.  1G.  Upland  willow  oak,  Q.  cine- 

13.  Cork  oak,  Q.  suber.  rea. 

14.  Willow  oak,  Q.  phellos.  17.  Running  oak,  Q.  pumila. 

15.  Laurel  oak,  Q.  imbricaria. 

1  Except  in  thirteenth  species. 


Classification  of  the  Oaks.  213 

Second  Section :  Leaves  lobed. 

18.  Bar  tram  oak,  Q.  heterophylla.     20.  Black-jack  oak,  Q.ferruginea. 

19.  Water  oak,  Q.  aquatica.  21.  Bear  oak,  Q.  Bannister L 

Third  Section:  Leaves  multifid  or  many-cleft. 

22.  Barren  scrub  oak,  Q.  Gates-     25.  Scarlet  oak,  Q.  cocdnea. 

baei.  26.  Gray  oak,  Q.  ambigua. 

23.  Spanish  oak,  Q.falcata.  27.  Pin  oak,   Q.  palustris. 

24.  Black  oak,  Q.  tinctoria.  28.  Eed  oak,  Q.  rubra. 

853.  The  oaks  ha\e  been  made  a  subject  of  careful  study  by  Dr. 
Geo.  Engelmann,  of  St.  Louis,  who  arranges  the  native  American 
species  according  to  their  natural  affinities,  as  follows  :  * 

A.  LEUCOBALANUS  (White  Oaks.) 
1.  Seeds  maturing  annually: 
(a.)  Leaves  deciduous. 

Quercus  alba,  White  oak. 

"         lobata,  California  white  oak. 

"         Brewerii,  Brewer's  oak. 

"         Garrayana,  Oregon  white  oak. 

"     .    stellate,  Post  oak. 

"         macrocarpa,  Burr  oak  ;  overcup  oak. 

"         lyrata,  Southern  overcup  oak. 

"         bicolor  (Mickauxii),  Swamp  white  oak. 

"         prinus,  Rock-chestnut  cak. 

Muhlenberyu  (jprinoufes) .  Small  chestnut  oak. 
"         Douglasii,  California  white  cak. 
"         undulata,  Rocky  Mountain  white  oak. 
u         pungens,  Arizona  white  oak. 
(6.)  Leaves  persistent.  , 

Quercus  oblongifolia,  Oblong-leaved  oak. 
"  dumosa,  Dwarf  California  oak. 
'*  reticulate. 

virena,  Live  oak. 

^Transactions  of  St.  Louis  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  III.,  No.  4,  p.  388. 
The  common  names  that  we  have  added,  are  somewhat  uncertain  4n  their 
use.  It  will  be  seen  that  some  have  two,  some  more,  and  others  are  applied 
to  more  than  one  species. 


214  Classification  of  the  Oaks. 

2.   Seeds  maturing  the  second  year : 

*/  «7 

Quercus  chrysolepis  (vacciniifolia) ,  Canon  live  oakc 
"         Pahnerii,  Palmer's  dwarf  oak. 
"         tomentdla. 

B.  MELANOBALANUS  (Black  Oaks.) 

1.  Seeds  maturing  annually ;  leaves  persistent : 

Quercus  Emwyi,  Emory's  oak. 
"         agrifolia,  Field  oak. 
pumila,  Dwarf  oak. 
"         hypoleuca. 

2.  Seeds  maturing  the  second  year : 
(a.)  Leaves  deciduous. 

Quercus  rubra,  Black  oak ;  Red-oak. 

coccinea1  (tinctoria),  Scarlet-oak. 
Kettoggii,  California  black-oak. 
"        falcata,  Spanish-oak. 
"         Catesbaei,  Catesby's  oak. 
"         ilicifolia,  Black  scrub-oak. 
"         palustris,  Pin-oak. 
"         Georgiana. 
"         aquatica,  Water-oak. 
**         laurifolia,  Water-oak. 
"         nigra,  Black-jack. 
"         cinerea,  Upland  willow-oak. 
"         imbricaria,  Shingle -oak. 
"        phellos,  Willow-oak. 
(6.)  Leaves  persistent. 

Quercus  Wislizeni,  California  live-oak. 
"         myrtifolia. 

One  other,  the  California  chestnut  oak  (Q.  densiflora),  can  be 
classed  with  neither. 

854.  Hybrids  are  occasionally  noticed  in  the  oaks,  from  the  cross- 
fertilization  of  species,  but  not  outside  of  the  group  to  which  the 
species  belong.  The  differences  between  white  oaks  and  black  oaks 
are  too  great  to  admit  of  this  crossing,  and  they  have  been  more 
frequently  noticed  in  the  black  oaks.  The  following  black  oaks, 

1  The  Q.  coccinea  and  Q.  tinctoria  are,  by  some  botanists,  made  separate 
species. 


Hybrid  Oaks :   General  mode  of  Cultivation.         215 

heretofore  described  as  species,  are  regarded  by  Dr.  Engelmann  as 

hybrids : 

Qaercus  sinuata,  probably  from  Q.  Catesbaei  and  Q.  laurifolia.  (South 

Carolina.) 

"      tridentata,  from  Q.  imbricaria  and  Q.  nigra.     (Illinois.) 
"      Leana,  from  Q.  imbricaria  and  Q.  coccinea.     (Ohio  to  Mis- 
souri, and  near  Washington.) 

"      heterophyUa,  from  Q.  phellos  and  Q.  coccinea.    (In  New  Jer- 
sey and  Delaware.) 

855.  Oaks  succeed  best  on  a  deep  loomy  soil,  and  on  low  lands 
rather  than  upon  hills.  They  are  especially  liable  to  injury  from 
late  spring  frosts,  both  in  the  blossoms  and  leaves,  and  having  a 
long  tap-root,  they  are  somewhat  difficult  to  transplant,  without 
careful  preparation,  tending  to  the  suppression  of  this  root,  and  to 
the  formation  of  abundant  fibers.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  fall 
or  early  in  the  spring,  in  the  places  where  they  are  to  remain,  and 
should  be  cultivated  till  they  shade  the  grounds.  When  started  in 
nurseries,  they  should  be  transplanted  two  or  three  times  before  final 
planting,  and  the  tap-roots  should  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  to 
induce  the  formation  of  lateral  roots  and  more  abundant  radicles. 


120.  Querciis  pedunculata :  The  English  Oak— Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit. 


216 


Cultivation  of  the  Oak. 


856.  There  is  a  great  advantage  in  planting  them  with  other  spe- 
cies, such  as  the  beech,  pines,  and  spruces,  with  the  view  of  com- 
pelling the  trees  to  form  a  long  straight  body  ;  but  in  this  case, 
reasonable  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  those  other  kinds  from 
time  to  time,  as  the  growth  becomes  dense. 

857.  Where  the  oak  is  cultivated  in  Europe  for  its  bark  and 
wood,  it  is  recommended  to  cut  close  to  the  ground,  and  in  a  dry 
time  to  cover  the  stumps  with  a  handful  of  leaves,  or  any  rubbish 
that  may  be  convenient,  to  keep  them  from  becoming  too  dr}r.     If 
cut  very  close,  the  sprouts  will  be  fewer  in  number,  but  stronger, 
and  better  rooted.     Where  this  practice  is  carefully  followed,  they 
will  reproduce  a  great  number  of  times. 


121.  Oak  from  Provence,  France.    Very 
hard,  and  of  rapid  growth. 


ISf 


122.  Oak  from  Bourerosrne,  France.  Very 
hard,  but  of  slow  growth. 


858.  The  quality  of  oak  timber  is  much  influenced  by  the  condi- 
tions in  which  it  has  grown.     In  a  rich  and  moderately  humid  soil, 
and  in  a  warm  climate,  the  fibers  acquire  their  highest  qualities  of 
strength  and  durability.     Such  wood   the  French   call   "  maigre" 
(lean),  or  "  dur"  (hard).     The  grain  is  hard  and  close  :  it  scarcely 
absorbs  water.     The  wood  splits  easily  without  running  out  on  one 
side,  and  when  planed  the  shavings  form  strong  tough  strips.    When 
such  wood  is  broken,  the  fracture  forms  many  long  sharp  splinters. 
The  two  specimens  on  page  217  are  also  of  this  class. 

859.  But  when  oak  is  grown  in  a  soil  that  is  submerged  fora  time 
in  spring,  but  dry  the  rest  of  the  year,  the  spring  growth  is  loose 
and  spongy,  while  that  formed  later  in  the  season  may  be  very  hard. 
Such  wood  can  not  be  either  strong  or  durable,  although  from  the 
differences  in  the  grain,  it  may  be  highly  ornamental  for  inside  fin- 
ishing and  for  cabinet  work. 

860.  THE  AMERICAN  WHITE  OAK  (Quercus  alba).     This  tree  oc- 
curs from  Canada  southward  to  the  Gulf,  and  westward  to  beyond 
the  Missouri,  but   it   conies   to  greatest   perfection  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  in  the  deep,  strong,  and  moderately  damp  soil.     The 


The  White  Oak. 


217 


land  on  which  it  formed  a  principal  part  of  the  timber,  generally  has 
proved  when   brought  under  cultivation   to   be  well  adapted  for 


123.  Italian  Oak:  Very  coarse, 
but  strong  when  fully  ripened. 


124.  Italian  Oak:  Coarse,  but 
very  strong. 


wheat.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  whitish  color  of  the  bark.  The 
wood  has  a  slightly  reddish  tinge,  and  although  not  as  heavy  and 
compact  as  the  common  English  oak,  it  is  solid,  strong,  and  durable, 
and  is  found  excellent  for  heavy  timber-work,  and  for  all  kinds  of 
structures  requiring  durability  and  strength.  It  is  extensively  used 
for  staves,  agricultural  implements,  carriage  and  car-building,  cab- 
inet wares,  fencing,  and  various  farm  purposes,  and  is  a  favorite  wood 
in  ship-building.  Like  the  European  oaks  above  described,  the 
quality  of  the  wood  differs  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in 
which  it  has  grown,  being  relatively  more  dense,  strong,  and  dura- 
ble when  grown  in  a  warm  climate  and  upon  a  rich  and  moderately 
humid,  clayey  loam. 

861.  This  timber  has  been  largely  exported  from  the  northern 
borders  of  the  United  States,  and  from  Canada  by  way  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  England,  and  in  districts  where  it  was  once  abundant 
it  is  now  scarce.     A  considerable  amount  that  leaves  the  port  of 
Quebec  is  now  brought  from  Michigan  and  other  states  bordering 
upon  the  lakes.     In  floating  this  timber  it  is  usually  made  up  into 
rafts  with  pine,  to  give  it  greater  bouyancy. 

862.  THE  LIVE  OAK  (Quercus  vireiis),  is  an  evergreen  tree  found 


218 


Live  Oak:  California  Species. 


growing  in  Georgia,  Florida,  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast,  and  since 
an  early  period  in  our  government  it  has  been  an  object  of  protec- 
tion to  some  extent  on  account  of  its  great  value  in  ship-building. 
Some  experiments  at  cultivation  were  attempted  many  years  since, 
but  without  much  success,  excepting  the  clearing  away  of  bushes 
around  young  plants  found  native  in  the  thickets.  It  could  doubt- 
less be  grown  from  acorns  with  proper  care,  perhaps  by  using  slight 
perishable  baskets  for  keeping  the  soil  around  the  roots  in  trans- 
planting from  seed-beds,  as  is  practiced  with  bamboo  shells  in  rais- 
ing the  teak  and  the  cinchonas  in  India.  The  wood  of  the  live 
oak  is  of  great  strength  and  hardness,  but  not  of  slow  growth,  the 
annual  layers  being  often  a  quarter  or  a  third  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. This  tree  especially  deserves  cultivation  in  regions  where  it 
will  grow. 


125.  Quercus  HindsiL—  Leaves  and  Acorn  one-half  the  Natural 
Size. 

863.  Among  the  remaining  oaks  of  the  Atlantic  States,  there  are 
many  that  have  a  local  value,  but  none  that  enter  largely  into  com- 
merce, or  that  are  extensively  used  in  manufactures.  Most  of  them 
afford  excellent  fuel  and  charcoal,  and  some  of  them  are  quite  durable 
when  used  as  railway  ties  or  fence  posts.  The  bark  of  the  "  scarlet 


California  Oaks.  219 

oak"  (Quercus  coccinea)  furnishes  the  "  quercitron,"  so  highly  val- 
ued as  a  yellow  dye  and  a  tanning  material,  and  is  an  article  of  con- 
siderable commercial  importance. 

864.  Upon  the  Pacific  Coast  we  find  a  dozen  or  more  species  of 
the  oak,  some  of  them  fine  and  ornamental,  but  none  of  them  of 
great  importance  for  their  timber,  which  is  weak,  brittle,  and  alto- 
gether inferior  to  the  general  quality  of  oaks  as  found  in  the  Atlan- 
tic States.     They  chiefly  belong  to  the  "  white  oak"  family.     Four 
or  live  of  them  have  persistent  leaves,  the  rest  being  deciduous,  and 
one  of  them  much  resembles  the  chestnut. 

865.  THE  LONG-ACORNED  OAK  (Q.  Hindsii)  of  California,  much 
resembles  the  white  oak  of  the  Eastern  States.     It  is  the  finest  and 
perhaps  most  abundant  of  the  oaks  of  that  region,  occurring  along 
the  foot-hills  and  the  valleys  of  streams  in  clumps  and  belts,  branch- 
ing out  low  and  broad,  and  sometimes  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter 
near  the  ground.     The  wood  is  porous  and  brittle.     The  acorns  are 
gathered  and  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  stored  for  winter  use. 

866.  THE  CALIFORNIA  CHESTNUT  OAK  (Q.  densiflora)  is  a  small 
tree  with  evergreen  leaves,  found  growing  on  the  coast  range  with 
the  red-woods.     It  sometimes  occurs  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  and 
from  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.     It  is  often  only  a  shrub.     The 
fruit  ripens  the  second  year,  and  the  wood  is  worthless  and  brittle. 
This   oak   is   the   only  American   representative  of  a  group  found 
chiefly  in  Asia,  having  strong  resemblance  to  the  chestnut,  with 
spines  on  its  cup,  somewhat  like  those  on  the  chestnut- burr.     In  the 
Sacramento  Valley,  it  forms  a  low  but  handsome  tree. 

867.  THE  EVERGREEN  OAK  of  California,  often  called  the  "shrub 
oak"  (Q.  agrifolia,  is  a  low  spreading  tree,  having  much  the  form 
of  an  apple-tree,  rarely  over  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  30  to  40  feet 
high.     It  occurs  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  and  extends  south  into 
Mgxico.     The  wood  is  hard,  brittle,  and  too  small  for  valuable  use. 

868.  THE  CHESTNUT  (Castanea  vesca).     This  tree  is  found  native 
from  the  central   part  of  New  England  and   Central   New  York 
southward  and  westward,  extending  into  the  mountains  of  the  Car- 
olinas  and  Georgia,  and  occurring  abundantly  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.     In  Canada  it  is  found  only  in  the 
peninsula  westward  from  the  Niagara  river,  and  is  not  of  sufficient 
abundance  to  be  of  much  practical  account.     It  is  common  in  the 
states  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  where  the  soil  is  favorable.     Our 


220  The  Chestnut. 

American  chestnut  is  a  variety  of  the  same  species  that  is  culti- 
vated iii  Europe. 


(126.  Quercus  agrifolia.—  Leaves  and  Fruit  one-half  Natural 
Size.     [See  page  219.] 

869.  The  chestnut  in  Massachusetts  forms  one  of  the  largest  of 
the  native  forest  trees,  growing  sometimes  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  state  to  the  height  of  ninety  or  a  hundred  feet.     It  extends 
into  the  southern  edge  of  Maine,  but  scarcely  beyond  the  44th  de- 
gree of  latitude,  nor  does  it  generally  thrive  near  the  sea. 

870.  The  chestnut  is  early  to  feel  the  warmth  of  spring,  and  some- 
times suffers  from  late  spring  frosts.     For  this  reason,  it  is  least  apt 
to  suffer  on  a  northern  or  north-eastern  slope.     It  requires  a  light, 
silecious  soil,  if  deep  and  substantial,  and  especially  prefers  that 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  or  sand- 
stone.    Upon  granitic  gravel  and  volcanic  scoriae  it  $»ives  the  most 
abundant  products.     It  is  useless  to  plant  it  upon  calcareous  soils, 
nor  does  it  prosper  upon  clays,  or  in  marshy  and  uudrained  situations. 
It  prefers  hills  and  mountains  of  moderate  height,  and  succeeds  much 
better  there  than  upon  plains. 

871.  For  cultivation  as  a  timber-tree,  it  should  be  planted  upon 
gravelly  hills,  and  generally  where  it  is  to  remain.     The  young 
plants  are  robust  from  the  first,  and  do  not  prosper  in  the  shade. 
They  are  more  apt  to  suffer  from  frost  than  the  oak.     The  roots  are 
generally  abundant,  and  strike  deep  into  the  soil,  but  not  as  deep 
as  the  oak.     The  growth  is  rapid,  and  sustained  till  sixty  or  seventy 


The  Chestnut.  221 

years  of  age,  but  it  continues  to  live  and  grow  to  more  than  twice 
this  period,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  it  sometimes  lives  to 
an  immense  age.1 

872.  Of  our  native  forest  trees,  there  are  few  that  show  a  greater 
tendency  to  grow  from  the  sprouts  than  the  chestnut,  and  on  rocky 
and  broken  grounds,  where  this  tree  will  flourish  best,  there  is  no 
crop  that  under  favorable  circumstances  and  proper  protection  will 
pay  so  good  a  profit  upon  the  laud. 

873.  It  is  remarked  by  the  highest  authorities  upon  forestry,  that 
"  chestnut   stumps   have   a   remarkable   durability,  and    that  the 
sprouts  they  send  up  afford  a  growth  both  vigorous  and  rapid.     It 
is  especially  in  vine  countries  that  coppices  of  this  wood  are  found 
most  profitable,  from  the  hoops  they  furnish  for  casks  and  props  for 
the  vines."2     It  is  not  advisable  to  reserve  trees  for  large  growth  in 
a  chestnut  coppice,  as  is  done  with  great  advantage  in  the  oak,  be- 
cause the  shade  would  do  more  harm  to  the  young  growth  than  the 
air  and  light  would  benefit  the  reserves. 

874.  The  trees,  when  ten  or  fifteen  years  old,  will  begin  to  bear 
fruit,  and  thus  assist  in  re-stocking.     It  would  be  advisable  to  re- 
serve a  few  trees  around  the  borders  of  the  tract  to  secure  some 
timber  of  larger  growth,  and  increase  the  chestnut  harvest. 

875.  Chestnut  "  sprout  lauds"  must  of  course  be  kept  inclosed 
against  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle  at  all  seasons,  for  although  they 
may  be  cut  off  at  one  time,  there  will  still  be  sprouts  of  small  size, 
and  these  will  be  needed  for  re-stocking  the  ground.     The  same 
objection  would  not  exist  against  the  admission  of  swine,  which  in 
fruitful  seasons  would  thrive  and  fatten  without  injury  to  the  trees. 

876.  Where  a  chestnut  grove  is  to  be  started  in  Europe,  it  is 
recommended  to  set  the  young  trees  from  nurseries,  when  about 
three  years  old,  at  distances  of  two  or  three  yards  apart,  cultivat- 
ing the  ground  between  as  long  as  it  can  be  conveniently  done  with 
potatoes  or  grain.     When  the  trees  have  grown   to  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  they  carefully  cut  them  off  close  to  the  ground, 

1  A  chestnut  tree  (or  pirhaps  a  group  of  trees)  formerly  stood  upon  Mt. 
Etna,  more   than   fifty  yards  in  circumference.     It  was  hollow,  and  must 
have  been  some  2,000  .years  old.     It  was  called  "  castagno  di  cento  cavalli." 
It  appears  from  an  account  published  in  1865,  that  this  remarkable  tree  no 
longer  exists."     (Recue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Juh%  1,  1865.) 

2  Lorentz  and  Parade — Culture  des  Bois. 


222  The  Chestnut. 

and  the  next  spring  the  stump  is  covered  with  numerous  strong 
sprouts. 

877.  In  six  or  eight  years,  when  the  shoots  have  become  thick 
and  strong,  the  smaller  rods  are  cut  out,  leaving  only  two  or  three, 
which  when  thus  relieved  take  a  vigorous  start,  and  at  the  end  of 
six  or  seven  years  more  are  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter.     It 
is  again  thinned  out,  and  at  20  to  25  years  from  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, the  trees  that  are  left  have  made  a  truly  wonderful  growth. 
The  thinnings  from  beginning  have  value,  first,  for  coarse  basket  and 
wicker-work ;  and  then  for  hoops  and  poles,  suitable  for  many  uses. 

878.  Generally  a  coppice  of  chestnut  is  cut  off  when  twelve  or 
fifteen  years  old,  and  in  Alsace  and  Eastern  France,  the  profits 
from  such  a  cutting  are  twice  as  great  as  from  the  white  oak  of  that 
region  at  twice  its  age,  a  hectare  at  fifteen  years  being  worth  3,000 
francs.1     It  is  there  recommended  to  cultivate  the  ground  with  po- 
tatoes and  rye  two  or  three  years  after  each  cutting,  the  yield,  of 
these  harvests  being  more  than  double  the  cost  of  cultivation  and 
seed.     Chestnut  coppices  thus  managed  will  last  in  Alsace  for  a 
hundred  years.     This  cultivation  is  thought  to  stimulate  the  growth 
of  sprouts,  by  bringiug  the  ends  of  the  roots  to  the  air,  besides  rid- 
ding the  ground  of  bushes  and  brambles. 

879.  The  European  chestnut  is  an  important  article  of  food,  es- 
pecially in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.     The  fruit  is  much  larger 
than  the  American  variety,  and  runs  into  differences  in  quality  that 
have  been  introduced  by  cultivation,  and  that  are  propagated  by 
grafting.     In  bearing  years,  the  yield  of  a  single  tree  is  often  very 
large,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  a  ton  or  more  of  the  fresh  fruit 
in  a  single  year.     This  shrinks  about  one-third  in  weight  upon  dry- 
ing.    When  used  as  food  it  is  boiled  or  roasted.     The  dried  fruit  re- 
duced to  a  meal  is  made  into  a  kind  of  bread  called  in  Italy  polenta. 
It  furnishes  a  principal  article  of  food  to  the  poor  inhabitants  of  the 
mountain  regions  through  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

880.  The  chestnut  product  of  Italy  is  about  6,400  tons  a  year  for 
the  markets,  and  the  trees  are  under  cultivation  for  the  fruit  upon 
a  million  and  a  quarter  of  acres. 

881.  Chestnut  wood  is  heavier  and  closer  grained  when  grown  in 

1  Brolliard's  " Traiiement  des  Bois  en  France"  p.  108.  A  hectare  is  2.47 
acres.  The  rate  here  mentioned  is  a  little  over  $240  per  acre  for  15  years  or 
$16  per  acre  annually. 


The  Chestnut.  223 

warm  climates,  and  in  Italy  it  is  thought  equal  to  the  oak  for  staves. 
In  colder  countries  it  is  too  porous  for  coopers'  use  excepting  for  dry 
wares.  It  is  highly  prized  for  carpentry,  bears  exposure  very  well, 
and  is  very  durable  for  fencing.  It  is  sometimes  made  into  shingles, 
but  although  durable,  it  is  very  apt  to  warp.  Its  lumber  is  much 
used  for  furniture  and  inside  finishing,  and  shows  to  fine  advantage 
when  oiled  or  varnished. 

^82.  Throughout  Prance  and  the  south  of  Europe,  young  chest- 
nut rods  are  extensively  used  for  hoops,  and  from  their  durability 
in  moist  places  they  will  long  resist  the  dampness  of  cellars.  Chest- 
nut coppices  are  considered  valuable  property  for  this  use,  and  are 
cut  off  about  once  in  seven  years,  the  smaller  rods  being  saved  for 
hoops,  and  the  larger  ones  for  vine-props.  The  American  chestnut 
is  not  found  well  adapted  for  this  use,  as  the  wood  is  more  brittle, 
and  more  liable  to  split  off  at  the  ends. 

883.  As  a  fuel,  the  chestnut  ranks  with  the  light  woods.     Its 
pores  being  full  of  air,  it  snaps  as  it  burns,  and  its  charcoal  is  light, 
but  still  useful  in  forges,  although  not  as  valuable  as  the  hard-woods 
in  the  reduction  of  metallic  ores. 

884.  The  extract  of  chestnut  is  prepared  in  France,  by  cutting  the 
green  wood  into  chips,  with  revolving  planes,  that  slice  across  the 
grain.     The  chips  are  then  put  into  great  covered  boilers,  and  al- 
lowed to  mascerate  for  some  time,  when  steam  is  admitted,  and  the 
process  is  continued  till  the  tannin  in  the  wood  is  exhausted.     The 
liquor  is  then  strained  out  and  evaporated  to  the  desired  consistence. 
This  acid  product  is  used  in  preparing  silks,  and  is  employed  in  tan- 
ning the  lighter  kinds  of  leather.     In  the  neighborhood  of  Lyons, 
France,  they  get  25  per  cent  of  weight  of  the  wood  in  the  form  of 
extract,  worth  about  18  francs  per  100  kilograms,  equal  to  about 
500  pounds  to  the  ton,  worth  $32.72. 

885.  Chestnut  wood   has  been  used   to   a   small   extent  in  the 
United  States  for  tanning  purposes.     It  appears  to  require  a  warm 
climate,  to  develop  these  properties  so  as  to  be  of  much  value. 

886.  Dying  off  of  the  Chestnut.     Throughout  the  Piedmont  region 
in  North  Carolina  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama, the  chestnut  trees  have  been  dying  off  in  many  cases  to  a  large 
extent,  and  from  causes  that  have  not  been  ascertained.     The  mor- 
tality is  noticed  in  trees  of  all  ages,  and  now  there  is  but  little  of 
this  timber  found  in  a  growing  condition  in  North  Carolina  east  of 


224  The  Chestnut,  and  the  Chinquapins. 

the  Blue  Ridge,  until  we  get  high  up  on  its  peaks  and  spurs. 
Westward  of  this  ridge,  the  trees  do  not  bear  fruit  now  as  they  did 
twenty  years  ago,  so  that  hog-raising,  formerly  an  important  busi- 
ness, has  almost  ceased.  Occasionally  there  is  still  a  good  chestnut 
crop,  but  it  is  rare  and  uncertain. 

887.  In  Europe,  a  similar  fatality  has  been  noticed  in  some  parts 
of  Italy  and  Spain,  and  there  has  been  found  in  connection  with  the4 
roots  a  fungus,  composed  of  blackish  brown  filaments,  forming  a 
net-work  that  penetrates  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  bark  and  wood, 
feeding  upon  the  juices  of  the  living  tree,  and  upon  the  decompos- 
ing remains   of  the  dead.     No  remedy  has  been  proposed  there 
short  of  grubbing  up  and  destroying  by  fire  the  roots  of  infected 
trees,  and  all  the  debris ;  but  of  course  in  our  country  such  a  meas- 
ure would  be  wholly  impracticable,  unless  possibly  in  isolated  cases, 
should  this  treatment  be  found  effectual,  and  its  necessity  urgent.1 

888.  THE  CHINQUAPIN  (Castanea  pumila)  is  usually  a  shrub  or 
small  tree,  growing  in  swamps,  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States, 
rarely  attaining  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  and  generally  being 
too  small  for  use.     In  Arkansas,  however,  it  grows  to  a  large  size — 
sometimes  three  and  even  four  feet  in  diameter,  but  not  to  a  great 
height.     The  fruit  is  small  and  sweet,  and  sometimes  finds  its  way 
into  market.     A  dwarf  variety  grows  upon  poor  soils,  and  bears  fruit 
when  not  more  than  a  foot  in  height.     It  has  been  recommended 
for  cultivation  as  a  covering  for  land  too  poor  for  other  growth,  and 
as  affording  food  for  swine. 

889.  THE  WESTERN  CHINQUAPIN  (Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  is  gen- 
erally a  low  and  unimportant  evergreen  shrub,  growing  in  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon;  but  in  the  Cascade  Mountains,  it  sometimes  grows 
to  thirty  feet  in  height,  or  even  much  larger.     The  leaves  have  a 
dark  green  color  above,  but  are  covered  with  a  yellow  powder  be- 
neath.    The  nut  is   small,  with  a  harder  shell  than  the  eastern 
chinquapin,  which  it  otherwise  much  resembles. 

1  A  writer  in  Carrol  Co.,  Ga.,  mentions  this  disease  of  the  chestnut,  which 
appeared  about  fifteen  years  ago,  and  had  made  a  clean  sweep — even  the 
bushes  having  nearly  all  died;  no  worms  or  insects  had  been  found  upon 
them  before  death,  and  even  now  the  dead  chestnut  trees  were  the  most  val- 
uable rail-timber  they  had,  it  being  soft  but  very  durable,  lasting  longer  in 
the  open  weather  than  any  other  kind.  After  being  dead  over  ten  years, 
the  trees  were  sound,  and  without  signs  of  decay. 


The  Beeches.  225 

THE  BEECH  (Genus  Far/us). 

890.  About  twenty-five  species  of  the  Fagus  are  described  by 
botanists,  being  widely  diffused  in  the  temperate  zones  both  north 
and  south. 

891.  In  Europe  the  beech  (Fagus  sylvatica)  is  very  extensively 
cultivated  in  France,  Germany,  and  Denmark,  constituting  a  very 
important  timber-tree,  preferring  a  cool  to  a  mild  climate,  and  in 
warm  regions  growing  only  at  considerable  elevations.     It  thrives  in 
great  variety  of  soils,  but   prefers   those   that  are  calcareous  and 
gravelly,  but  not  sandy,  and  where  the  climate  favors,  it  grows  both 
upon  mountains  and  the  plains.     It  is  often  cultivated  alone,  form- 
ing great  forests  by  itself;  but  it  grows  very  well  with  the  oak,  fir, 
maple,  Scotch  pine,  etc.,  and  as  its  roots  spread  near  the  surface, 
while  those  of  the  oak  penetrate  deep  into  the  sub- soil,  these  trees 
appear  to  thrive  very  well  together. 

892.  The  wood  of  the  beech  splits  remarkably  well  when  green, 
but  it  is  very  liable  to  shrink,  and  should  not  be  used  until  well 
seasoned.     It  is  largely  used  for  cabinet  work,  and  for  a  wide  di- 
versity of  uses  in  the  industries,  but  does  not  bear  exposure  to  the 
weather  nor  changes  from  wet  to  dry.     When  injected  with  the  sul- 
phate of  copper,  it  has  been  much  used  as  railroad  ties,  but  it  is  not 
as  lasting  as  unimpregnated  oak.     It  is  very  highly  esteemed  for 
fuel  and  charcoal,  and  the  oil  from  its  nuts  has  the  same  uses  as  that 
from  the  olive. 

893.  Its  growth  is  rather  slow  at  first,  but  a  little  more  rapid  than 
that  of  the  oak.     It  is  noticed  that  under  a  deep  shade  the  beech 
will  sprout  .from  the  seed  and  grow  to  a  yard  or  so  in  height,  when 
it  will  stop  growing,  and  remain  almost  indefinitely;  but  start  vig- 
orously again,  as  soon  as  the  light  is  admitted.1     The  slight  differ- 
ence in  quality  between  the  sap-wood  and  the  heart-wood,  allows  of 
the  whole  being  used  without  the  waste  of  any  part. 

894.  The  beech  comes  to  maturity  sooner  than  the  oak,  and  does 
not  grow  to  so  large  a  size.     As  there  is  not  much  gain  in  qual- 
ity when  grown  to  greatest  size,  it  is  generally  cut  when  from  24  to 
30  inches  in  diameter.     In  some  forests  it  is  grown  as  coppice-wood 
by  sprouts  from  the  roots  and  stump,  but  in  many  places  this  is  found 
an  uncertain  process,  and  it  is  planted  from  nurseries,  or  started  by 
natural  seeding. 

1G.  Bajrneris'  "Manuel  de  Sylviculture,"  2d.  Ed.,  p.  G5. 


"127.  Fagus  8ylvatiea.—The  European  Beach.  1.  Upper  side  of  a  twig  in  Mav,  with 
male  and  female  blossoms.  2.  A  separate  male  blossom.  3.  Antheis,  front  and 
rear  views  and  sections.  4.  Female  blossoms  of  natural  size.  5.  The  same,  sep- 
arated and  enlarged.  6.  Bectfon  of  the  same,  showing  the  germs  of  seeds,  en- 
larged. 7.  Transverse  section  of  the  latter,  at  the  poiut  marked  by  a  star.  8  The 
ripe  fruit  in  its  burr.  9.  The  g-ime,  before  opening,  in.  Cross-section  of  a  nut. 
11.  'J  \vig  with  two  laaf-buds.  ExccptinT  1,  4,  8,  t>,  und  11,  thcsa  figures  are  more 


The  Beeches.  227 

895.  A  very  simple  method  is  employed  for  preserving  the  nuts 
for  planting.     They  are  gathered,  spread  in  an  airy  place,  turned 
daily  to  allow  of  moderate  drying,  and  then  left  on  a  floor  under  a 
covering  of  straw  to  keep  from  frost.     With  the  greatest  care  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  keep  them  alive  from  fall  to  spring. 

896.  In  order  to  succeed  in  planting  the  beech,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  shelter  for  the  young  plant,  which  may  be  found  by  raking 
in  the  nuts  upon  bare  places  in  the  woods,  or  by  planting  in  east  and 
west  rows,  some  other  kinds  of  trees  a  year  or  two  before  we  plant 
the  beech.     These  nurses  may  be  birch,  elm,  pine,  or  whatever  else 
best  suits  the  soil,  as  they  are  to  be  removed  when  no  longer  needed. 

897.  The  nuts  should  be  planted  like  corn,  and  when  up,  they 
should  be  carefully  hoed,  taking  care  to  cover  the  seminal  leaves,  leav- 
ing only  the  leaves  proper  above  the  ground.     If  planted  in  fall, 
as  is  preferable,  the  seed  will  sprout  in  the  spring  following.     Ow- 
ing to  the  difficulty  in  getting  plants  started  from  the  seed,  it  is 
common  to  seek  the  young  plants  where  they  have  been  self-sown 
in  the  woods,  set  them   in   nursery  rows,  and  transplant  when  of 
sufficient  size.     These  seed-plants  are  best  taken  up  with  a  trowel, 
and  a  cool  cloudy  time  should  be  chosen  for  the  operation. 

898.  Our  native  species  (Fagus  feruginea)  occurs  widely  scattered 
throughout  the  New  England,  Middle,  and  Northwestern  States,  as 
far  west  as  Wisconsin,  and  in  Canada,  as  far  north  as  a  line  run- 
ning from  a  little  beyond  Lake  Huron  eastward   to  the  Bay  of 
Chaleurs.     It  extends  southward  into  the  Southern  States,  grow- 
ing sparingly  upon  the  low-lands,  but  to  large  size  in  the  moun- 
tains.    It  attains  its  greatest  development  in  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin, and  in  the  heavy  forests  south  of  Lake  Superior  its  growth 
is  truly  magnificent. 

899.  In  Northern  Pennsylvania  and  in  some  portions  of  New 
England  and  New  York,  the  beech  grows  as  almost  the  only  tree 
upon  dry  rocky  ridges,  and  in  fruit-seasons  these  beech  ridges  have 
attracted  enormous  flocks  of  wild-pigeons  for  nesting. 

900.  Various  exceptional  forms  and  tints  of  foliage  have  been 
produced  in  the  beech  under  cultivation,  and  are  perpetuated  by 
grafting   or  layers,   such   as   cut-leaved,  purple   or   copper-leaved, 
golden-stripe  leaved,  etc.     Some  of  these  produce  a  highly  orna- 
mental effect  upon  the  lawn,  and  in  parks  and  avenues. 

901.  The  beech  is  termed  "  red"  or  "  white"  by  woodmen,  from 


228  The  Beeches  and  the  Birches. 

the  difference  in  color  of  the  heart-wood  ;  but  they  appear  to  be 
simply  varieties  of  the  same  species,  from  differences  in  the  soil  or 
exposure.  The  red  beech  is  much  more  durable,  and  under  water 
it  appears  almost  indestructible.  It  has  also  been  found  durable  in 
plank-roads,  and  in  ship-building  where  permanently  under  water, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  sometimes  used  for  the  keels  of  vessels. 

902.  The  beech  of  Victoria  and  Tasmania  (Fagus  Cnnningh^mi) 
is  a  magnificent  evergreen  of  colossal  size,  and  living  only  in  cool, 
damp,  rich  forest  valleys  where  it  not  unfrequently  grows  to  the 
height  of  two  hundred  feet.     The  wood,  much  used  by  carpenters 
and  others,  is  known  to  the  trade  as  "  myrtle." 

903.  Other  evergreen  beeches  of  fine  size  and  much  value,  (F. 
Memiesii),  known  as  the  "  red  birch  ;"  F.fusca,  the  "  black  birch  ;" 
F.  Solandri,  the  "  white  birch,"  of  colonists)  are  found  in  New  Zea- 
land.    It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  these  might  succeed  un- 
der similar  conditions,  especially  in  Southern  California,  where  so 
many  Australian  species  have  been  found  to  thrive. 

THE  BIRCH  (Genus  Betula). 

904.  About  twenty-five  species  of  the  birch  are  known  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  and  they  are  divided  into  some  sixty  sub- 
species or  characteristic  varieties.     They  prefer  a  cool,  humid  cli- 
mate, some  growing  upon  mountains  of  considerable  elevation,  and 
others  preferring  swampy  grounds  and  river  banks. 

905.  The  birch  extends  about  as  far  into  the  Arctic  zone  as  woody 
plants  of  any  kind  will  grow.     In  the  remote  part  of  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  it  forms  coppices  on  rocky  elevations  where  no  other 
ligneous  plant  is  found,  and  throughout  Northern  Europe  it  forms 
an  important  article  for  fuel. 

906.  It  shows  a  tendency  to  succeed  the  pines  where  they  have 
been  cut  off,  and  is  readily  propagated  from  seed,  but  does  best  on 
new  ground,  and  can  hardly  be  made  to  grow  where  nursery  trees 
have  previously  been  raised.     The  seeds  scarcely  admit  of  any  cov- 
ering, and  if  simply  pressed  into  the  ground  with  the  feet  they  will 
grow.     A  bushel  of  seed  will  stock  thirty  linear  yards  of  a  seed- 
bed four  feet  wide.     When  a  year  old,  they  may  be  transplanted  to 
nursery  rows,  and  when  two  or  three  feet  high  may  be  set  for  per- 
manence. 

907.  Cut-leaved,  weeping,  and  other  varieties  have  been  intro- 
duced for  ornamental  planting,  and  are  perpetuated  by  grafting. 


The  Birches. 


229 


Sometimes  the  wood  has  knots  and  curls  in  the  grain  that  take  a 
fine  polish  when  used  as  veneers.  It  is  a  favorite  wood  for  shoe- 
pegs,  spools,  bobbins,  and  other  small  articles.  It  is  peeled  into 
brooms,  and  strips  of  its  wood  are  braided  into  baskets  and  fishing- 
traps.  The  smoke  of  its  wood  imparts  a  fine  flavor  to  hams,  and 


128.  Betula  alba.— White  Birch. 

its  bark  is  used  for  tanning  leather.  An  oil  prepared  from  the  birch 
imparts  the  peculiar  odor  to  Russia  leather  much  used  in  substantial 
book-binding.  Birch-wine  is  made  from  the  sap  of  this  tree  by 
fermentation. 

908.  The  seeds  of  the  birch  and  the  alder  scatter  very  soon  after 


230  The  Birches. 

they  ripen,  and  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them.  They  should  be  gath- 
ered by  hand  just  as  the  burrs  begin  to  turn  brown,  and  if  possible, 
they  should  be  sown  the  same  year.  An  expeditious  way  to  obtain 
the  seed  is  to  cut  off  the  branches  that  bear  the  burrs  at  the  time 
when  they  are  just  ripening,  and  hang  them  in  a  dry  place  till  the 
seed  falls  out.  As  they  should  be  covered  but  very  slightly,  they 
are  best  raked  in,  upon  soil  previously  prepared,  and  if  sown  in  au 
tumu,  they  will  start  the  next  spring. 

909.  The  birch  can  not  reproduce  with  much  advantage  from  tho 
stumps,  but  it  readily  springs  up  from  the  seed  in  vacant  spots  in 
the  woods. 

910.  THE  YELLOW  BIRCH  (Betula  excelsa)  is  a  northern  species, 
growing  to  a  greater  size  than  any  other  of  the  birches,  and  when 
large,  the  grain  is  often  twisted  in  a  spiral  manner.     Its  wood  is 
solid,  fine-grained,  and  easily  worked,  and  is  much  used  for  cabinet, 
wares.    The  bark  possesses  tanning  properties,  yet  is  but  seldom  used. 

911.  THE  CANOE  BIRCH  (Betula  papyracea)  is  also  a  northern  spe- 
cies, occurring  along  the  northern  border  of  the  United  States,  and 
far  northward  into  Canada.     The  bark  is  used  for  making  canoes, 
baskets,  and  other  uses,  and  its  wood,  which  is  white,  is  largely 
used  for  making  shoe  pegs,  spools,  lasts,  and  cabinet  wares.     It 
turns  smoothly,  and  takes  a  fine  finish. 

912.  THE  RED  BIRCH  (Betula  niyrd)  grows  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
from  New  England  to  the  Carolinas.     It  is  also  common  in ^ the 
Western  and  South-western  States,  always  preferring  river  banks, 
and  sometimes  growing  to  one  or  two  feet  in  diameter,  but  usually 
much  less.     It  derives  its  name  from  the  reddish  tinge  of  the  bark, 
which  hangs  in  loose  shreds  upon  the  trunk  and  branches,  giving  it 
a  peculiarly  ragged  appearance. 

913.  THE  SWEET  BIRCH  (Betula  lento)  sometimes  called  "  Cherry 
Birch,"  or  "  Black  Birch,"  from  the  dark  color  of  its  bark,  is  a  tree 
of  small  size ;  is  chiefly  a  northern  species,  extending  from  Canada 
southward  along  the  mountains  as  far  as  North  Carolina.     The  Be- 
tula glandulosa,  a  far-northern  species,  and  some  others  of  less  ac- 
count, are  also  found  within  our  territory,  occurring  as  a  low  bush 
upon  our  northwestern  coast. 

914.  THE  WESTERN  BIRCH  (Betula  occidentalis)  is  a  shrub,  grow- 
ing 10  to  20  feet  high,  with  a  close,  dark-colored  bark,  which  be- 
comes light  brown,  copiously  sprinkled  with   resinous   warts.     It 


The  Alders.  231 

occurs  in  the  eastern  canons  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  at  an  elevation 
of  4,500  to  10,000  feet  above  tide,  where  it  is  said  to  be  common. 
It  is  found  northward  in  Washington  Territory  and  in  British 
America,  and  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  New  Mexico.  Well- 
grown  trees  are  found  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Frazer  basin,  and 
in  the  Pearl  river  country,  in  British  Columbia. 

THE  ALDER  (Genus  Alnus). 

915.  Of  these  there  are  about  fifteen  species,  found   in  middle 
and  northern  Europe,  North  America,  and  upon  the  Andes  in  South 
America.     About  half  the  number  occur  in  North  America. 

916.  The  European  alder  most  commonly  cultivated  is  the  A. 
glutinosa.     It  is  indigenous  throughout  Europe,  and  when  growing 
wild,  seldom  attains  more  than  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height ;  but  in 
Great  Britain  it  has,  under  cultivation,  grown  to  eighty  feet  with  a 
trunk  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter.     It  matures  at  fifty  or  sixty 
years.     Its  timber,  when  always  submerged,  is  very  durable,  but  not 
where  exposed  to  alternations  of  wet  and  dry.     Its  brush  is  used  in 
filling  marshy  lands,  and  its  wood  as  staves  for  fish  barrels,  and  for 
lasts,  turned  goods,  cabinet  wares,  etc.     To  prevent  insects  from  at- 
tacking it,  the  finer  pieces  are  sometimes,  in  Scotland,  immersed  for 
some  months  in  water  in  a  peat  bog.     If  some  lime  is  thrown  in, 
the  effect  is  improved.     Such  wood  has  some  resemblance  to  ma- 
hcgany,  and  is  used  for  tables,  etc.     Charcoal  from  this  wood  is 
used  in  making  gunpowder,  and  the  bark  for  tanning. 

917.  The  alder  prefers  a  rich,  damp  soil,  such  as  alluvial  bottom- 
lands and  the  borders  of  streams.     It  will,  however,  grow  to  a  large 
size  on  dryer  land,  and  from  its  rapid  growth  and  great  tenacity  of 
life,  it  is  esteemed  as  a  nurse  for  the  more  tender  kinds  in  bleak  and 
exposed  situations.-    It  is,  like  the  willow,  useful  for  consolidating 
banks,  and  to  keep  it  in  best  condition  for  this,  it  is  cut  as  coppice- 
wood  once  in  eight  or  ten  years.    It  sprouts  readily  from  the  stumps. 
As  a  screen  for  osier  fields  and  the  like,  it  is  very  valuable. 

918.  The  alder  is  propagated  with  facility  from  the  seed,  which 
should  be  spread  in  their  cones  on  a  dry  floor,  and  stirred  from  time 
to  time  till  they  are  dry.     They  may  be  sown  at  once,  or  in  March 
or  April  following,  on  rich,  moist  laud,  previously  prepared.     They 
should  be  thinly  covered  and  rolled,  and  the  next  spring  trans- 
planted from  the  seed-beds,  and  after  another  year  in  the  nursery, 


u 


Ifi 


129.  Alnus  glutinnsn.  —  The  Black  Alder.  1.  Twig:  with  leaves,  and  the  germs  of  male 
and  female  blossoms  of  the  next  year.  2.  Mule  catkin  in  full  bloom.  3,  4,  5,  6.  A 
full-blossomed  capsule,  from  different  points  of  view.  7,8.  A  four-lobed  single 
blossom,  side  and  upper  points  of  view.  9.  Female  catkin,  enlarged.  30,11/12, 
d  view  of  fe 


13,  14,  15,  16.  Enlarge 


male  blossom,  with  appendages,  and  the  fruit. 


17.  The  ripe  fruit-capsule.  IS.  The  same,  opened.  l'.>.  A  twig,  with  leaf-buds. 
20.  Cross-section  of  a  twig.  Of  the  above  figures,  only  1,  2,  17,  18,  19,  and  20  are 
of  the  natural  size,  the  remainder  being  enlarged. 


The  Alders  and  the  Hornbeams.  233 

they  may  be  finally  transplanted.  The  alder  is  rated  as  a  soft  wood, 
and  sold  at  a  low  price.  For  general  cultivation  it  is  not  profitable, 
but  for  special  uses  it  has  great  advantages. 

919.  THE  AMERICAN  ALDER  (Alnus  incana),  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed of  our  native  species,  occurs  from  New  England  northward 
far  into  British  America,  and  westward  to  Oregon.     It  is  found  in 
New  Mexico,  Nevada,  and  Utah,  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mount- 
ains to  an  elevation  of  6,000  to  7,000  feet.     It  most  commonly  oc- 
curs in  dense  thickets  along  the  border  of  streams,  seldom  growing 
to  a  size  for  any  use  but  firewood. 

920.  THE  RED  ALDER  (A.  rubrci)  occurs  along  the  Pacific  from 
Alaska  southward,  sometimes  growing  30  to  40  feet  high.    It  grows 
to  a  small  tree  on  Vancouver  and  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  and  the 
coast  of  the  mainland,  and  its  wood  is  sometimes  used  for  charcoal. 

921.  THE  WHITE  ALDER  (A.  rhombifdia)  occurs  from  Oregon  to 
Southern  California  as  a  tree  20  to  50  feet  high  and  2  to  3  feet  in 
diameter.     It  has  a  light,  ash-gray  bark,  slender  branches. 

922.  The  Alnus  oblong  if olia  occurs  in  Southern  California  and  New 
Mexico  as  a  tree  20  to  30  feet  in  height. 

923.  THE  OREGON  ALDER  (A.  Oregona)  is  a  tree  growing  to  50 
or  GO  feet  in  height,  and  sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter,  near  the 
ground.     Like  the  other  alders,  it  prefers  the  banks  of  streams. 
The  wood  is  brittle,  and  not  employed  for  useful  purposes. 

HORXBEA:I  (Genus  Carpinus). 

924.  Of  the  genus  Carpinus,  about  nine  species  are  found  in  the 
North  Temperate  Zone  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  and  but  one  (0. 
Americana)  is  found  native  in  the  United  States.     It  is  known  by  va- 
rious common  names,  such  as  the  "  hop-hornbeam,"  from  the  clusters 
of  fruit  somewhat  resembling  hops,  "  blue-beech,"  "  water  or  swamp 
beech,"  etc.     It  has  the  general  habit  of  the  beech,  and  its  bark  is 
smooth  like  that  tree.     The  stem  is  generally  somewhat  fluted  or 
angular,  and  it  is  of  smaller  size.     The  foliage  becomes  crimson, 
scarlet,  and  orange  in  autumn. 

925.  The  hornbeam  occurs  widely  distributed  throughout  the  At- 
lantic States  and  Canada;    never  in  dense  groves,  but  scattered 
through  forests  of  other  deciduous  kinds.     The  wood  is  close,  white, 
hard,   and  fine-grained,   remarkably  tough  and   strong,  and  well 
adapted  to  places  where  it  is  required  to  resist  great  pressure  or  fric- 
tion.    When  of  sufficient  size,  the  wood  is  useful  in  the  mechanic 


234  The  Hornbeams  and  the  Maples. 

arts,  and  is  suitable  for  the  making  of  levers,  tool-handles,  and 
other  articles  requiring  great  strength.  It  forms  an  excellent  fire- 
wood and  material  for  charcoal  used  for  cooking,  or  in  forges,  or  for 
making  gunpowder. 

926.  THE  EUROPEAN  HORNBEAM  (Carpinus  betulus)  is  often  culti- 
vated for  screens  and  hedges  in  Europe,  and  it  was  thought  by 
Michaux  that  it  might  be  introduced  with  profit  into  the  United 
States.     Among  its  merits  are  the  following :  It  bears  pruning  well, 
is  not  liable  to  disease,  grows  for  a  long  time  in  a  confined  form, 
and  does  not  injure  the  adjacent  crops,  probably  because  its  roots 
draw  their  support  from  a  greater  depth ;  it  grows  very  close  and 
twiggy,  and  retains  its  leaves  late  ;  it  endures  a  rough  and  windy 
situation,  and  grows  well  in  a  great  variety  of  soils. 

927.  It  seeds  abundantly,  and  when  sown  immediately,  a  few 
spring  up  the  first  year,  but  most  of  them  not  till  the  second  year. 
The  usual  mode  of  cultivation  is  to  sow  in  spring,  at  the  rate  of  a 
bushel  of  clean  seed  to  fifty  yards  of  a  bed  four  feet  wide ;  and  as 
the  seeds  do  not  grow  the  first  year,  the  ground  may  be  occupied  by 
some  other  light  crop,  such  as  onions,  lettuce,  raddish,  or  cabbage. 
They  may  be  thinned  out  when  one  year  old  by  transplanting  to 
nursery  rows,  but  the  young  plants  do  best  if  not  taken  up  till  they 
are  two  years  old.     In  two  years  more,  they  will  be  suitable  for  set- 
ting in  single  hedge  rows.     Under  cultivation,  the  hornbeam  has 
produced  cut-leaved  and  variegated  forms  that  are  propagated  by 
layers  for  ornamental  planting. 

THE  MAPLES  (Genus  Acer). 

928.  The  maples  occur  widely  distributed  in  the  Northern  Temper- 
ate Zone  upon  both  continents,  and  upon  the  eastern  rather  than  upon 
the  western  sides.     There  are  about  fifty  species  described,  of  which 
nine  or  ten  occur  within  the  United  States.     They  generally  grow 
to  trees  of  considerable  size,  take  when  planted  alone,  a  rounded, 
symmetrical  form,  and  are  highly  prized  for  ornamental  planting  in 
village  streets  and  by  the  wayside. 

929.  The  wood  of  the  maples  is  generally  light  colored  or  with  a 
reddish  tinge,  works  smoothly,  is  not  liable  to  warp  or  check,  and  is 
much  valued  for  cabinet  work.     In  some  cases,  the  grain  is  curled 
or  contorted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  it,  when  finished,  a  highly 
ornamental  effect. 

930.  The  maple  leaves  in  autumn  take  bright  crimson  and  orange 


130.  Carpinus  bffrilns.—  The  European  Hornbeam.  1.  Twig,  with  two  male  and  one 
female  blossoms.  2.  A  fruitful  stem,  with  leaves.  3,  4.  Male  blossoms,  from  up- 
per, lower,  and  si^e  poiurs  of  view.  5.  A  single  seed-capsule,  with  section.  6. 
Leaf-cover,  with  t.ie  inclosed  female  blossoms.  7.  A  pair  of  female  blossoms, 
with  the  envelope  removed.  8.  A  single  pistil.  9.  A  ripe  seed,  with  its  threc- 
lobed  seed-leaf.  10.  The  seed-capsule,  separated  and  enlarged.  11.  Transverse 
section  of  the  samo.  1-2.  The  perms,  separated.  1:>.  Twig,  with  three  leaf-buds 


above,  and  two  male  flower-buds. 


separated.    1:>.  Twig, 
11.  Germ,  as  it  first  «mnoa.rs  unon  snroiithiy. 


236  The  Maples. 

colored  tints,  that  give  a  characteristic  splendor  to  the  woodlands 
during  the  few  days  that  they  remain  after  they  are  fairly  ripe. 

931.  THE  SUGAR  MAPLE  (Acer  saccharimmi).     This  tree,  which 
is  altogether  the  most  valuable  of  the  maples,  is  a  native  of  Can- 
ada and  the  Northern  States,  extending  southward  along  the  mount- 
ains into  the  Carolinas,  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi  river.     It 
is  abundant  in  Western  North  Carolina,  but  it  thrives  best  in  a 
rather  cool  climate,  and  in  a  calcareous  and  loamy,  rather  than  a 
sandy  soil.     In  Canada  it  extends  northward  to  a  line  running  from 
the  northeastern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  to  a  short  distance  below 
Quebec,  and  thence  northeastward  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
The  "  Maple  Leaf"  is  a  national  emblem  with  the  Canadians,  and  the 
gorgeous  splendor  of  the  autumnal  forests  in  the  north  is  largely 
due  to  the  colors  assumed  by  the  foliage  of  this  tree  at  this  season. 

932.  The  sugar  maple  grows  to  a  height  of  sixty  to  eighty  feet, 
and  to  a  diameter  of  two  feet  and  over.     When  planted  alone,  it  as- 
sumes a  rounded,  symmetrical  form,  and  it  deservedly  enjoys  a  high 
reputation  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  village  and  roadside  planting, 
but  it  does  not  endure  the  dust  and  smoke  of  cities.     When  grown  in 
woodlands,  it  assumes  a  tall,  regular  form,  and  it  is  often  found  in  for- 
ests by  itself,  or  mingled  with  beech,  birch,  hemlock,  and  other  trees. 

933.  Upon   the  prairies  of  Illinois  this  tree   grows   slow  when 
young,  but  at  length   takes  a  more  vigorous  start,  and  becomes  a 
fine  tree.     It  will  not  grow  with  entire  success  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  fails  altogether  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 

934.  In  the  Northern  States  and  in  Canada,  when  tapped  upon 
the  approach  of  spring,  and  for  a  period  of  thirty  or  forty  days, 
ending  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  this  tree  yields  a  sweetish  sap, 
which  by  evaporation  may  be  reduced  to  syrup  and  to  sugar  of  su- 
perior quality.     Several  million  of  pounds  of  this  sugar  are  made 
every  year,  and  upon  some  farms  in  Vermont  and  Northern   New 
York  more  profit  is  realized  from  a  maple  woodland,  than  could  pos- 
sibly be  gained  upon  an  equal  area  by  any  agricultural  crop.     The 
yield  is  usually  two  or  three  pounds  to  the  tree  in  the  season,  but  in 
exceptional  cases  it  may  be  more. 

935.  From  the  limited  experiments  that  have  been  made,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  sap  of  the  maple  contains  more  sugar  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season  than  toward  its  close,  and  that  different  trees 
vary  in  the  amount  of  sugar,  some  giving  much  sweeter  sap  than 
others.     As  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  the  sap  becomes  "  ropy,"  and 


The  Maples.  237 

gives  off  an  offensive  odor  in  boiling.  It  crystalizes  with  difficulty, 
and  it  is  customary  to  use  the  last  run,  partly  concentrated  by  boil- 
ing, for  making  vinegar,  by  exposing  it  to  fermentation. 

936.  The  flow  of  sap  is  much  influenced  by  meteorological  con- 
ditions, and  is  best  with  freezing  nights  and  thawing  days,  and  in  a 
damp  atmosphere.     It  will  sometimes  flow  by  night,  and  a  run  may 
last  two  or  three  days,  and  then  be  suspended,  from  causes  unknown, 
until  another  freezing  night.     The  sap  flows  in  drops,  at  the  rate  of 
from  thirty  to  a  hundred  in  a  minute,  and  from  three  to  four  gal- 
lons will  make  a  pound  of  sugar. 

937.  The  holes  bored  in  a  maple  tree  will  close  up  in  two  or  three 
years,  and  do  not  appear  to  injure  the,  growth  of  the  trees.     They 
may  be  tapped  annually  from  the  time  when  they  are  ten  or  twelve 
inches  in  diameter  till  they  are  seventy  or  eighty  years  old,  and  a 
maple  grove  kept  inclosed  against  cattle  may  be  used  perpetually 
ibr  sugar-making,  the  young  trees  coming  on  to  replace  those  that 
are  cut  at  full  maturity. 

938.  The  wood  of  the  sugar  maple  is  highly  valued  as  a  fuel  and 
for  cabinet  work,  and  varieties  known  as  "birds-eye"  are   highly 
valued  for  the  making  of  veneers,  affording  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  woods  used  in  ornamental  work. 

939.  THE  BLACK  MAPLE  (Acer  nigruni)  is  commonly  regarded  as 
only  a  variety  of  the  A.  saccharium,  and  is  equally  valuable  for  the 
making  of  sugar,  and  its  timber  for  all  the  uses  to  which  the  sugar- 
maple  is  applied. 

940.  THE  SILVER-LEAF  OR  RIVER  MAPLE  (Acer  dasycarpuni). 
This  and  the  next  following  species  are  often  called  "soft  maples," 
or  "  white  maples,"  from  the  texture  and  color  of  the  wood.     They 
bear  fruit  early  in  the  season,  and  their  seeds  must  be  planted  the 
same  year,  and  while  still  fresh. 

941.  This  species  is  planted  extensively  as  a  shade  tree  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States,  and  grows  very  rapidly,  but  the  wood 
being  brittle,  the  trees  are  liable  to  injury  by  the  winds.     In  rich 
alluvial  soils  it  grows  to  a  large  size ;  -but  the  tree  is  not  long-lived, 
and  its  wood,  although  used  for  inside  finishing  and  cabinet  work, 
soon  perishes  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

942.  The  silver  maple  is  less  common  in  the  South  than  the  red 
maple.     In  North  Carolina  it  grows  sometimes  thirty  or  forty  feet 
high,  and  the  sap  is  sometimes  made  into  sugar,  which  has  a  su- 


238  The  Maples. 

perior  flavor  and  light  color,  but  is  not  more  than  half  as  productive 
from  a  given  measure  of  sap  as  the  sugar  maple  of  that  region. 

943.  RED  MAPLE  (Acer  rubruni).     This  tree   derives  its  name 
from  the  color  of  its  bright  red  blossoms,  that  appear  early  in  the 
spring,  and  before  the  leaves.    It  is  sometimes  called  '*  white  maple," 
from  the  color  of  its  wood,  and   "  swamp  maple,"  from  its  favorite 
place  of  growth.     It  does  not  generally  grow  to  so  large  a  size,  nor 
live  to  so  great  an  age  as  the  sugar  maple.     Its  wood  is  lighter  and 
softer,  but  is  often  used  in  cabinet  work.     It  is  not  durable  when 
exposed  to  the  weather.     When  the  grain  is  wavy  it  has,  when  fin- 
ished up,  a  beautiful   glossy  luster,  affording  the  variety  of  fine 
woods  known  as  the  "  curl  maple." 

944.  The  red  maple  is  found  from  Canada  to  Florida  and  Louis- 
irna,  and  through  the  Western  States  to  Nebraska.     It  does  not,  in 
the  regions  further  west,  succeed  under  cultivation  so  well  as   the 
"  silver-leaf  maple."     The  sap  of  the  red  maple  is  not  so  sweet  as 
that  of  the  sugar  maple,  and  is  seldom  used  in  making  sugar.     The 
young  bark  affords,  %ith  copperas  as  a   mordant,  a  purplish-black 
dye,  occasionally  used  in  coloring  wool  and  cotton. 

945.  In  North  Carolina  this  tree  is  found  from  the  coast  to  the 
mountains,  sometimes  seventy  feet  high  and  three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter. 

946.  STRIPED  MAPLE  (Acer  Penmylvanicum) .     This  is  generally 
a  small  slender  tree,  seldom  growing  in  groves,  but  scattered  here 
and  there  among  other  woods,  and  never  growing  to  a  large  size,  or 
living  to  so  great  an  age  as  some  other  maples.     The  wood  is  white 
and  soft,  and  the  bark  smooth,  greenish,  and  marked  with  stripes. 
It  is  sometimes  called  "  moosewood,"  ki  dogwood,"  or  "  dogmackie." 
It  may  be  cultivated  for  ornament,  but  is  not  generally  successful 
unless  partly  shaded  by  other  trees.     In  North  Carolina  this  tree  is 
found  on  the  mountains  as  a  shrub,  rarely  ten  feet  high. 

947.  THE  MOUNTAIN  MAPLE  (Acer  spicatum).     This  is  a  shrub, 
generally  growing  in  clumps  from  a  common  root,  along  rocky  ra- 
vines in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States.     It  is  too  small  for  use, 
but  will  be  ir  cultivation  with  other  shrubs,  in  a  rocky  soil. 

948.  THE    OREGON   OR    LARGE-LEAVED    MAPLE   (Acer  macro- 
phyllum).     This  tree  grows  from  fifty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  and 
from  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  size  of 
its  leaves,  which  are  occasionally  a  foot  across,  and  usually  from  6  to  10 


The  Maples.  239 

inches.  It  seldom  grows  alone  in  much  abundance,  but  is  scattered 
through  the  evergreen  forests,  and  seldom  growing  to  as  large  a  size 
as  the  sugar  maple. 

949.  It  occurs  in  mountain  ravines  from  Santa  Barbara  north- 
ward to  British  Columbia,  where  it  is  found  on  Vancouver  and  ad- 
jacent islands,  and  on  the  immediate  coast  of  the  mainland,  never 
inland,  and  scarcely  beyond  55°  north  latitude.     It  there  forms  a 
small  tree,  sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter.     In  California  it  chiefly 
occurs  on  the  Coast  Range.     The  young  branches  present  green 
stripes,  not  unlike  those  characteristic  of  the  striped  maple  of  the 
Atlantic  States. 

950.  The  wrood  is  close-grained,  hard,  takes  a  beautiful  polish, 
and  the  grain  is  sometimes  twisted  and  curled,  giving  it  a  highly 
ornamental  appearance. 

951.  THE  VINE  MAPLE  (Acer  cirdnatum).     This  is  also  peculiar 
to  the  Pacific  Coast,  growing  in  pine  forests  from  Northern  California 
to  Oregon,  and  always  near  the  coast.     It  is  a  shrub,  growing  some- 
times 30  to  40  feet  in  height,  and  rarely  a  fool  in  diameter,  and 
usually  in  several  slender  trunks  springing  from  one  root,  as  in  the 
mountain  maple  of  the  Atlantic  States.     These  do  not  grow  up- 
right, but,  arching  down,  touch  the  ground,  and  there  taking  root, 
present  a  tangled  thicket  most  difficult  to  penetrate.     It  prefers 
moist  deep  soils.     Its  leaves  much  resemble  those  of  the  sugar 
maple,  and  its  wood  is  very  tough  and  strong,  heavy,  white,  close- 
grained,  and  sometimes  twisted  in  its  grain.     It  is  used  in  making 
axe-helves  and  tool-handles,  but  is  generally  too  small  for  cabinet 
work,  although  otherwise  well  adapted  to  this  use. 

952.  THE  SMOOTH  MAPLE  (Acer  glabrwri).     This  is  an  unim- 
portant shrub,  found  from  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  eastward  to 
California,  and  from  Yosemite  northward.     It  is  too  small  for  use- 
ful purposes,  and  grows  chiefly  in  damp  mountain  ravines. 

953.  THE  BOX-ELDER,  OR  ASH-LEAVED  MAPLE  (Negundo  acer- 
oides).     There  are  four  species  of  the  Xegundo,  of  which  the  At-\ 
lautic  States,  the  Pacific  Coast,  Mexico  and  Japan,  have  each  one. 
It  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  maples  that  it  has,  by  some  botanists, 
been  classed  with  them  as  the  Acer  negundo. 

954.  The  box-elder,  in  the  Atlantic  States,  is  somewhat  southern 
in  its  habits.     In  North  Carolina  it  is  found  most  common  in  the 
middle  portion  of  the  state,  along  the  borders  of  the  streams,  grow- 


240  The  Maples  and  the  Box-Elders. 

ing  from  15  to  25  feet  in  height.  It  is  rare  in  the  lower  district. 
Further  north  it  takes  a  larger  growth,  and  it  is  found  northward 
as  far  as  Southern  New  York. 

955.  In  the  Western  States,  along  the  Mississippi  and  beyond,  it 
grows  well,  aud  it  occurs  out  on  the  plains,  in  the  timber  belts  that 
fringe  the  rivers  and  streams,  about  as  far  west  as  any  tree  can  be 
found. 

956.  Under  its  best  conditions  this  tree  grows  to  the  height  of 
70  feet,  but  it  is  usually  much  less.     It  grows  very  rapidly,  and 
comes  to  maturity  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  years.    It  is  among  the  best 
of  trees  to  cultivate  for  avenues  and  along  public  roads,  and  under 
cultivation  it  has  produced  some  varieties  having  bleached  and  yel- 
lowish foliage,  that  gives  it  a  fine  appearance  in  ornamental  planting. 

957.  Although  it  prefers  low  rich  grounds,  it  bears  a  drouth  very 
well,  and  in  the  more  westerly  states,  on  the  borders  of  the  Great 
Plains,  it  deserves  much  attention  as  easily  propagated,  and  likely 
to  succeed  where  many  other  kinds  would  fail. 

958.  In  the  Western  and  Northwestern  States,  the  sap  of  this 
tree  is  made  into  sugar  and  syrup  of  excellent  quality  and  flavor, 
but  less  in  amount  than  that  from  the  sugar  maple. 

959.  As  the  staminate  and  pistilate  flowers  of  the  box  elder  grow 
upon  different  trees,  the  seeds  must  be  gathered  in  groves  where 
both  kinds  occur.    The  former  are  easily  distinguished  when  in  blos- 
som by  the  stamens  hanging  in  groups  springing  from  common 
points,  by  slender  hairy  stems,  with  four  cr  five  anthers  at  the  end, 
while  the  fertile  blossoms  show  the  rudiments  of  the  future  wings 
of  the  seed,  and  have  two  pistils  coming  out  between  them. 

960.  THE    CALIFORNIA    Box  ELDER    (Negundo  Calif orniensis). 
This  is  commonly  a  small  tree,  but  rarely  it  grows  to  the  height  of 
70  feet.     It  occurs  along  streams,  following  the  coast  range  in  Cal- 
ifornia, from  San  Luis  Obispo  northward,  but  not  into  British  Co- 
lumbia.    Its  leaves  are  smaller  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  other 
species,  and  they  are  more  coarsely  toothed  ;   otherwise  there  is 
much  resemblance  between  them. 

THE  LINDEN  OR  BASSWOOD  FAMILY  (Tiliacece). 

961.  About  thirty  genera  belong  to  this  family,  chiefly  occurring 
in  the  torrid  and  south  temperate  zones.     They  are  mostly  trees, 
often  of  great  size,  with  handsome  flowers  and  foliage,  a  mucilagin- 


The  Basswoods.  241 

ous  juice,  and  tough,  stringy  inner  bark.  Some  of  them  yield  a 
succulent  and  edible  fruit.  The  wood  is  soft,  light,  and  in  some 
species  very  elastic.  The  jute  of  commerce,  a  much  esteemed 
fibrous  plant  of  annual  growth,  belongs  to  this  natural  order. 

962.  Europe  has  several  native  species  of  the  lilia,  of  which  the 
T.  parvifolia  is  supposed  to  be  the  only  one  native  of  Britain,  al- 
though the  T.  Europea,  T.  grandifolia,  and  other  species,  have  been 
long  under  cultivation,  and  trees  occur  several  hundred  years  old. 
The  tree  is  there  chiefly  propagated  by  layers,, when  raised  for  orna- 
mental planting,  and  by  this  means  various  ragged-leaved,  silver- 
leaved,  and  other  curious  varieties  are  continued. 

963.  The  linden  is  a  great  favorite  for  ornamental  planting  in 
Holland  and  elsewhere  in  Europe.     The  lirge  leaved  species  grows 
to  the  largest  size,  and  reaches  the  greatest  age.     In  Russia,  the 
inner  bark  of  the  basswood  is  made  into  textile  fabrics,  cordage,  and 
the  like.     The  wood  is  sometimes  ground  into  pulp  for  paper. 

964.  Our  common  basswood,  linden,  or  lime-tree  of  the  Atlantic 
States  and  Canada  (Tilia  Americana),  is  by  far  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed of  the  four  species  found  native  in  the  United  States.     It 
grows  to  a  large  size,  but  when  old  is  very  apt  to  become  hollow.  The 
wood  is  very  white,  light,  uniform  in  texture,  not  liable  to  crack  or 
split,  is  quite  tough,  and  when  sawn  into  thin  boards,  may  be  read- 
ily bent  into  curves.     It  is  much  prized  for  cabinet  wares  and  the 
panels  of  carriages,  and  its  lumber  is  much  used  for  carving  and  for 
finishing  the  inside  work  of  houses,  but  it  does  not  bear  exposure  to 
the  weather  well,  unless  painted.     When  thoroughly  seasoned  and 
painted,  it  makes  an  excellent  material  for  outside  work,  as  it  re- 
ceives and  holds  the  paint  well. 

965.  The  basswood,  when  standing  alone,  takes  a  finely  rounded 
form,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  of  trees  for  avenues.     The  blossoms 
abound  in  honey,  and  in  bee-keeping  this  tree  affords  a  most  excel- 
lent source  of  supply. 

966.  THE  WHITE  LINNS  (Tilia  heterophytta  and  T.  alba)  and  the 
Southern  Linn  (T.  pubescens)  are  much  loss  widely  distributed,  being 
southern  and  western,  and  the  latter  a  tree  of  large  size. 

967.  The  basswood  loves  a  deep,  rich,  and  humid  soil,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  it  grows  quite  rapidly.     It  is  generally  consid- 
ered an  indication  of  a  good  soil.     It  seldom  occurs  in  groves  by  it- 
self, but  is  scattered  among  other  deciduous  trees,  often  in  clumps, 


The  Basswood. 


131.  Tilia  parvifolia:  The  Small-leaved  Basswood.  1.  A  sprig,  with  blossoms  and 
leaves.  '2,  3.  The  blossoms  from  upper  and  under  points  of  view.  4.  5  Trans- 
verse and  longitudinal  sections  of  a  fruit-bud,  tt.  Pistil.  7.  The  fruit.  S.  Sec- 
tion of  tiie  same.  (J.  Section  of  the  seed.  10.  Twig,  with  buds.  11.  Youn- 
sprout. 


The  Elms. 


243 


as  if  from  sprouts  that  have  come  up  around  a  tree  that  has  decayed. 
It  is  easily  cultivated  from  the  seed,  which  should  generally  be 
planted  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  that  they  ripen.  For  or- 
namental planting,  they  should  be  started  in  seed-beds,  and  then 
transplanted  into  nursery  rows. 

THE  ELMS  (Genus  Ulmus). 

968.  About  sixteen  species  and  numerous  varieties  of  the  elm 
are  known  to  botanists,  chiefly  in  the  north  temperate  zone  of  both 
continents,  or  upon  mountains  within  the  tropics.  They  are  for  the 
most  part  trees  of  rapid  growth,  and  attaining  a  large  size,  and  the 
wood  is  strong,  tough,  fibrous,  difficult  to  split,  and  useful  for  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.  It  is  generally  very  durable  under 
water,  and  its  quality  is  much  influenced  by  the  conditions  of  soil, 
humidity,  and  temperature  under  which  it  has  grown.  The  seeds 
ripen  early  in  summer,  and  should  be  sown  the  same  year. 


(a.)  (6.)  (c.)  (d.) 

132.  Differences  in  the  Growth  of, Elms.— Sections  of  the  Elm:  (a.)  From  Canada— The 
layers  of  growth  so  thin  that  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished,  (ft.)  From 
Dunkirk,  France— Wood  very  strong,  and  grown  in  deep  "humid  soil,  (c.)  From 
the  battle-field  of  Toulon— Grown  on  a  sub-soil  that  is  very  damp,  but  owing 
to  the  heat  of  the  climate  the  wood  is  strong,  (d.)  From  Provence,  France- 
Grown  on  soil  that  is  less  humid. 

969.  THE  WHITE  ELM  (Ulmus  Americana).     This  tree  is  justly 
valued  as  one  of  the  best  for  ornamental  plantations,  and  one  of 
the  most  graceful  in  form.     The  branches  generally  divide  at  ten 
or  fifteen  feet  above  the  ground,  and  gradually  diverging  as  they 
rise,  spread  out  on  every  side  and  then  descend,  giving  the  tree  an 
urn -shaped  form,  that  at  once  distinguishes  it  at  a  great  distance 
from  all  other  forest  trees.     Some  of  the  New  England  towns  and 
villages,  especially  along  the  Connecticut  river,  present  magnificent 
avenues  of  this  tree. 

970.  The  quality  of  the  wood  is  generally  excellent,  as  it  is  very 


244  The  Elms. 

tough,  strong,  and  flexible.  It  is  much  used  for  hoops,  carriage 
and  wagon  making,  cheese  boxes,  and  bent-work  generally,  and  is 
an  excellent  timber  in  carpentry,  but  very  apt  to  shrink  and  warp 
when  sawn  into  boards. 

971.  The  "Rock  Elm,"  as  a  variety  of  this  species  is  called,  is 
particularly  prized  for  wagon  hubs,  and  although  this  tree  occurs 
from  the  Carolinas  to  Canada,  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi,  the 
best  qualities  for  this  use  are  found  in  New  England  and  New  York. 
A  fine  quality  is  also  found  in  some  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana.  In  the  rock  elm,  about  five  feet  of  the  butt  is  all  that 
can  be  used  for  hubs,  and  the  best  qualities  are  found  in  trees 
grown  in  an  open  space  and  freely  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  For 
this  use  the  trees  should  be  cut  in  December  or  January.  The  inner 
bark  should  be  left  on,  and  the  sticks  should  not  be  left  long  on  the 
ground.  After  remaining  in  cross-piles  for  two  mouths,  they  should 
be  cut  into  blocks  for  further  curing,  and  the  ends  dipped  in  melted 
lard  and  rosin,  to  prevent  them  from  checking.  In  this  condition 
they  should  be  left  under  shelter  till  dry. 


133.  Leaves  of  the  Red  Elm. 

972.  THE  SLIPPERY  OR  RED  ELM  (Ulmns  fulva).  This  tree, 
is  scattered  over  most  of  the  Northern  and  Western  States.  It 
grows  to  a  large  size,  but  has  not  the  graceful  form  of  the  common 
American  elm.  The  wood  is  very  durable,  when  not  in  contact 
with  the  ground,  and  is  of  a  reddish  tinge,  that  gives  it  the  common 
name.  The  leaves  are  coarser  and  more  corrugated  than  the  kind 
above  mentioned,  and  the  inner  bark  is  highly  mucilaginous  when 


The  Elms.  245 

steeped  in  water,  giving  it  valuable  medicinal  properties,  as  a  de- 
mulcent drink,  and  for  emollient  poultices.  This  material,  when 
thoroughly  dried,  cut  small,  and  ground  in  a  mill,  is  an  article  of 
commerce,  and  is  kept  by  most  druggists. 

973.  A  writer  in  Iowa,  in  speaking  of  the  cultivation  of  the  red 
elm  remarks,  that  this  tree  has  not  received  the  attention  that  it 
merits,  and  sums  up  its  good  qualities  as  follows  : 

1.  It  is  hardy,  even  in  the  most  exposed  position  on  the  prairies. 

2.  It  grows  on  rich  soil  with  great  rapidity. 

3.  The  seeds  are  easily  gathered,  and  require  no  great  skill  in 
handling  and  planting, 

4.  It  is  unusually  free  from  disease  and  injury  from  insects. 

5.  It  has  a  large  proportion  of  heart-wood,  even  when  young. 

6.  When  grown  thickly  in  groves,  it  runs  up  straight  and  tall, 
and  when  the  poles  are  large  enough  to  split  for  two  rails,  it  may 
be  divided  as  easily  as  the  chestnut.     When  laid  as  rails,  or  nailed 
to  posts,  they  are  very  durable. 

7.  When  large  enough  for  vine-stakes,  if  cut  in  summer,  peeled, 
and  dried  before  setting,  they  will  last  well. 

974.  THE  CORK  ELM  (Ulmus  racemosa).     This  derives  its  name 
from  the  corky  excrescences  on  the  bark  of  the  young  twigs  and 
small  branches,    although  this  character   is   far  from   being   con- 
stant, nor  is  it  limited  to  this  species.     This  tree  occurs  in  New 
England,  New  York,  and  westward,  and  often  grows  to  a  large  size. 
Its  foliage  is  of  a  darker  green,  and  its  wood  harder,  stronger,  and 
more  durable  than  that  of  the  preceding  species. 

975.  THE  SMALL-LEAVED  ELM  (Ulmus  data),  sometimes  called 
the  "  wahoo,"  is  a  southern  species,  and  grows  to  a  smaller  size  than 
the  white  or  red  elm,  but  it  has  a  very  compact  wood,  which  is 
much  used  for  the  naves  of  wheels,  and  is  even  preferred  to  the 
black-gum  for  this  purpose.     From  the  inner  bark  a  rope  is  some- 
times made,  which  has  been  used  in  bagging  cotton. 

976.  THE  ENGLISH  ELM  (Ulmus  campestris).     This  is  a  favorite 
tree  for  ornamental  planting  in  Great  Britain,  and  has  been  intro- 
duced in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.     Some  of  the  finest  elms 
in  Boston  are  of  this  species.     As  to  its  merits  for  city  planting  Mr. 
Emerson  remarks :   ''I  have  been  unable  to  compare  satisfactorily  the 
rapidity  of  its  growth  with  that  of  the  American  elm,  but  probably  in 
its  best  condition  the  latter  is  of  far  more  rapid  growth,  although  in 


246 


The  Elms, 


the  ordinary  situations  where  the  elm  is  planted,  and  where  it  gen- 
erally suffers  from  insufficiency  of  root  moisture,  the  European  elm 
is  immeasurably  its  superior  in  rapidity  of  growth,  length  of  life, 
and  general  thriftiness.  The  fact  that  the  European  is  fully  a 


134.  Ulmus  campestris— English  Elm. 

month  longer  in  leaf  than  the  American  elm,  that  its  tougher 
leaves  would  seem  to  offer  a  less  appetizing  food  to  the  canker-worm, 
the  greatest  enemy  to  the  American  elm  in  New  England,  and  its 
adaptability  to  all  situations  are  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  giv- 
ing the  preference  to  the  former  for  general  cultivation.  Its 


The  Osage  Orange.  247 

thriftiness  in  smoky  situations  makes  the  European  elm  the  most 
valuable  tree  our  climate  will  allow  for  city,  street,  and  square 
planting,  and  as  a  shade  tree  by  road-sides  no  American  tree  is  its 
equal."1 

977.  The  quality  of  the  timber  of  this  species  is  acknowledged  to 
be  superior  to  that  of  our  native  species,  and  it  well  deserves  atten- 
tion for  cultivation  as  a  timber-tree.     All  of  the  elms  afford  in  their 
ashes  a  large  amount  of  potash,  and  hence  a  top  dressing  of  wood 
ashes  is  of  great  advantage  in  their  cultivation. 

978.  THE  WYCH  ELM  (Ulmus  montana).    This  is  also  a  European 
species,  often  planted  in  parks.     It  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  more 
resembles  the  red  than  the  white  elm. 

THE  PLANERA  (Planer a  aquatica). 

979.  This  is  a  southern  tree,  found  growing  in  river  swamps  from 
North  Carolina  southward.     It  has  the  general  habit  of  the  elms, 
but  is  of  no  special  importance  in  forest-culture. 

THE  OSAGE  ORANGE  (Madura  aurantiaca). 

980.  This  tree,  sometimes  called  bois-d'are  (bow-wood),  is  found 
native  in  the  South-western  States,  in  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Indian 
Territory,  sometimes  growing  to  the  height  of  fifty  to  seventy  feet,  and 
to  a  diameter  of  three  or  four  feet.    The  wrood  is  there  found  to  be  ex- 
tremely durable  for  stakes  and  posts,  and  is  much  prized  for  wagon- 
making,  on  account  of  its  hardness  and  slight  tendency  to  shrink. 
In  its  native  region  it  grows  best  on  a  strong  alluvial  soil,  but  grows 
well  in  other  situations,  excepting  where  the  soil  is  damp,  and  with- 
out drainage.     It  begins  to  bear  fruit  when  about  eight  years  old, 
and  the  ripe  "  apples  "  are  readily  eaten  by  cattle. 

981.  It  can  be  cultivated  for  timber  in  the  South-western  States 
very  successfully  in  strong  bottom  lands,  by  preparing  the  land, 
planting  and  cultivating  for  the  first  year  cr  two,  in  the  same  way 
as  for  corn.     They  must  be  thinned  out  to  12  or  16  feet  apart,  and 
be  trimmed  up,  in  order  to  secure  a  straight  body  and  a  fine  growth, 
but  not  more  than  is  necessary  to  prevent 'the  branches  from  inter- 
locking or  crowding  too  close.     When  standing  alone,  it  makes  a 
low  spreading  tree,  with  but  little  trunk.     It  therefore  requires 
side-shading  or  trim  in  ing  to  make  it  grow  high.     As  grown  in  the 

^Agriculture  of  Mass.,  1875-6,  p.  272. 


248  The  Osage  Orange:   The  Mulberries. 

south-west,  it  makes  a  fire-wood  of  the  best  quality,  nearly  or  quite 
equal  to  hickory. 

982.  The  sap-wood  is  perishable,  but  the  heart- wood  is  very  dura- 
ble.    If  cut  in  winter  or  spring,  it  is  liable  to  the  attack  of  borers, 
but  generally  not  when  cut  in  August  or  early  in  autumn.     The 
wood  is  very  easily  split,  and  is  therefore  unfit  for  hubs,  although 
very  suitable  for  spokes.     From  its  great  durability  when  exposed 
to  the  weather,  it  is  very  well  adapted  for  agricultural  implements. 
The  wood  has  a  very  rich  orange  color,  becoming  darker  with  age, 
and  rendering  it  valuable  for  ornamental  cabinet  work. 

983.  The  osage  orange  is  not  a  tree  of  rapid  growth.     It  will  re- 
quire from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  for  it  to  become  large  enough  for 
fence-posts,  and  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  for  railroad  ties. 
From  its  hardness  and  tendency  to  split,  it  is  necessary  to  bore  holes 
before  driving  spikes.     When  planted  at  four  feet  apart,  it  will 
need  cultivation  for  four  or  five  years,  and  it  will  need  to  be  thinned 
out  in  from  eight  to  twelve  years,  according  to  the  stage  of  its 
growth  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.     As  the  staminate  and  pistilate 
flowers  of  the  osage  orange  grow  in  different  trees,  the  seeds  must 
be  gathered  in  its  native  region,  where  both  sexes  of  the  tree  are 
found  growing.     But  one  species  is  known  to  botanists. 

THE  MULBERRY  (Genus  Morus). 

984.  Some  writers  describe  from   ten  to  twelve  species  of  this 
genus,  while  others  reduce  them  to  five.     They  are  found  in  the 
north  temperate  zone,  and  within  the  tropics  of  both  the  old  and 
new  world,  and  are  of  great  economical  interest  from  the  fact  that 
their  leaves  form  the  principal  food  of  the  silk-worm. 

985.  We  have  within  the  United  States  a  native  species,  the  RED 
MULBERRY  (Morus  rubra),  that  is  widely  diffused,  being  found  in 
most  of  the  Atlantic  States,  and  sometimes  growing  to  the  height 
of  sixty  to  seventy  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet.     The  wood  is 
strong,  solid,  and  durable,  and  much  valued  as  fence-posts,  and  for 
ship-building.     From  experiments  that  have  been  made  in  the  feed- 
ing of  silk  worms  upon  the  leaves  of  the  red  mulberry,  it  appears 
that  the  quantity  of  silk  produced  is  less,  and  that  the  worms  are 
more  liable  to  disease. 

986.  THE  WHITE  MULBERY  (Moms  alba)  has  been  introduced  in 
many  places,  under  the  name  of  "Morus  multicaulis"  for  the  feeding 
of  silk  worms,  and  a  mania  of  speculation  led  to  attempts  at  its  cul- 


The  Mulberries.  249 

tivation  in  many  regions  where  a  little  reason  would  have  shown 
that  it  was  utterly  hopeless.  The  white  mulberry  is  made  to  grow 
without  difficulty  in  most  parts  of  the  Middle,  Southern,  and  West- 
ern States,  and,  under  intelligent  direction,  the  silk  industry  may 
doubtless  in  many  places  be  carried  on  with  profit.  It  is  propagated 


135.  The  Mulberry  Leaves  and  Fruit 

by  cutting  and  layers,  and  requires  a  warm,  dry  soil,  and  will  suc- 
ceed in  almost  any  place  that  will  bear  a  good  corn  crop.  There 
are  many  varieties  under  cultivation,  and  many  special  publications 
have  been  issued,  giving  directions  for  their  management. 

987.  THE  RUSSIAN  MULBERRY.     This  tree,  which  seems  to  be 
closely  allied  to  the  Morus  nigra,  or  black  mulberry,  and  the  M. 
Tartarica,  a  native  of  Russia,  has  in  recent  years  been  introduced  by 
Mennonite  emigrants,  and  is  found  to  thrive  very  well  in  the  West- 
ern States.     Trees  six  years  old  are  found  eight  inches  in  diameter 
and  sixteen  feet  high.     The  berries  may  be  eaten  fresh,  or  made 
into  jellies,  wine,  and  preserves.     Most  of  them  are  black,  but  some 
of  a  reddish  white,  with  an  aromatic  odor  and  sub-acid,  sweetish 
taste. 

988.  The  Meunonites  set  this  as  a  hedge  plant,  and  its  leaves  are 
said  to  be  valuable  for  feeding  silk  worms.     It  is  easily  transplanted, 
and  the  timber  is  excellent  for  fence  posts.     For  hedges,  the  plants 
should  be  set  a  foot  apart,  and  they  should  be  kept  cut  back  to 


250  The  Hackberry :  The  Tulip -Tree. 

make  them  thicken  up  and  spread  at  the  bottom.  It  may  be  culti- 
vated alone  cr  with  other  timber  in  groves,  and  it  makes,  when  set 
alone,  a  handsome  street  or  lawn  tree.  The  Russian  mulberry  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  more  valuable  than  the  gray  willow  or  the 
cotton  wood,  it  being  useful  from  its  shelter,  its  fruit,  and  its  wood. 
It  is  grown  from  cuttings. 

THE  HACKBERRY  (Genus  Cdtis). 

989.  Over  seventy  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  the  Torrid  and 
North  Temperate   Zones  of  both  hemispheres.     The  C.  oriental^ 
most  cultivated  in  Europe,  much  resembles  the  beech  in  appearance 
and  in  the  color  of  the  bark.     Its  wood  is  very  hard,  but  is  not  much 
cultivated  as  a  forest  tree.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  nettle-tree." 

990.  The  American    hackberry   (C.   occidentalis)    is    somewhat 
southern  in  its  native  locality,  but  is  found  scattered  here  and  there 
throughout  the  Northern,  Middle,  and   Western   States.     When 
planted,  it  starts  very  slowly  at  first,  but  when  it  has  passed  a  cer- 
tain stage  of  delay,  it  will  start  and  grow  vigorously.     It  extends 
from   New  England   and   Canada   to   Oregon,  and   southward   to 
Florida,  Texas,  and  New  Mexico.     In  the  Wahsatch  mountains,  it 
grows  to  an  elevation  of  from  4,200  to  6,500  feet  above  tide.     It  is 
one  of  the  species  that  deserves  attention  in  planting  upon  the 
western  plains. 

THE  TULIP-TREE  (Liriodendron  tulipifera). 

991.  This  tree  belongs  to  the  magnolia  family,  and  is  knowrn  by 
various  popular  names,  as  the  "  white-wood,"  the  "  yellow  poplar,"  and 
the  "  tulip-poplar."    It  is  the  only  species  belonging  to  the  genus.    It 
grows  to  a  magnificent  size,  with  a  cylindrical  trunk,  an  open,  rounded 
head,  a  dark,  ash-colored  bark,  somewhat  square,  truncated,  decidu- 
ous leaves,  and  large,  greenish-yellow7,  but   not  fragrant  flowers. 
The  bark  of  the  root  and  branches  is  bitter  and  aromatic,  acting  as 
as  a  diaphoretic  and  tonic,  and  is  sometimes  used  in  the  treatment 
of  intermittent  fever  and  chronic  rheumatism.     These   properties 
are  extracted  by  alcohol,  or  it  may  be  used  as  a  powder. 

992.  It  affords  a  lumber  of  great  excellence  for  floors,  ceiling, 
and  cabinet  work,  and  for  inside  finishing,  but  it  does  not,  unless 
protected  by  paint,  endure  well  in  the  open  air.     Being  soft  and 
easily  worked,  it  takes  the  place  of  pine  for  inside  work  of  houses, 
and  paper  has  been  made  from  the  bark. 


The  Tulip-  Tree :  The  Sycamore.  251 

993.  la  speaking  of  the   uses  of  this  wood,  Mr.  Emerson  re- 
narks:1  "In  New  England,  it  is  preferred  to  all  other  kinds  of 
rood,  in  all  uses  which  require  great  flexibility,  as  about  stairs,  for 
he  wash-board,  in  circular  rooms,  and  for  the  panels  of  carriages ; 
Iso  for  the  bottom  of  drawers,  and  for  panels  in  common  ward- 
obes,  and  other  small  articles." 

994.  The  tulip-tree  grows  to  magnificent  size,  preferring  a  moist, 
ich  soil,  and  in  good  situations  it  grows  to  100  and  even  150  feet 
tt  height,  and  from  six  to  nine  and  even  ten  feet  in  diameter. 

995.  The  nature  of  the  soil  has  an  effect  on  the  color  and  quality 
f  the  wood,  and  in  West  Virginia,  where  it  grows  to  great  per- 
ection,  mechanics  class  the  wood  as  white,  blue,  or  yellow,  but 
hese  can  not  be  determined  by  external  signs.     The  white  variety 
refers  a  dry,  elevated,  and  gravelly  ground ;  it  has  a  branching 
ead,  with  a  small  amount  of  heart-wood,  and  has  a  coarser  and 
arder  grain  and  a  less  durability  than  the  other  varieties.     The 
•lue  has  nearly  the  same  characters.     The  yellow  is  by  far  the 
.nest,  and  is  extensively  used  for  lumber  and  shingles.     It  affords 
-  good  foundation  for  veneers,  and  is  much  used  in  cabinet  work. 

996.  The  tulip-tree  is  readily  propagated  from  seed,  and  should 
>e  sown  in  a  fine,  soft  mold,  in  a  cool  and  shady  place.     If  sown  in 
he  same  autumn  of  its  growth,  it  will  germinate  the  next  spring; 
lut  if  sown  in  spring,  it  may  not  sprout  till  the  next  year. 

997.  This  tree  is  lather  difficult  to  transplant,  and  the  end  of  the 
oot  should  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife  when  it  is  taken  from  the 
eed-bed  and  set  in  a  new  place.     The  development  of  lateral  fibers 
nay  be  encouraged  in  the  same  manner  as  we  elsewhere  describe  for 
he  oak.     The  tulip-tree  occurred  native  in  Canada,  west  of  the  Ni- 
gara  river,  but  much  of  it  has  been  cut  away. 

^HE  PLANE-TREE,  BUTTONWOOD,  on  SYCAMORE  (Genus  Platanus). 

998.  This  is  the  only  genus  of  the  natural  order  Platanece,aud  it 
mbraces  five  or  six  species,  natives  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  in 
he  Old  World  and  the  New.     They  are  of  rapid  growth,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  thrive  only  along  river  banks  a  ad  in  deep,  rich,  alluvial 
oil. 

999.  The  COMMON  BUTTONWOOD  of  the  Atlantic  States  (Platanus 
ccidentali&)  has  a  wide  range  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  grows  to  a 

*" Trees  of  Massachusetts"  2d  ed.,  p.  606. 


252  The  Sycamores. 

large  size  in  rich  and  humid  soils  along  the  rivers  and  in  low 
grounds,  reaching  its  greatest  development  in  the  Western  and 
South-western  States.  In  Canada,  it  is  chiefly  limited  to  the  penin- 
sula west  of  Niagara  river.  When  found  of  a  very  large  size, 
it  is  very  often  quite  hollow,  but  this  does  not  prevent  it  from  grow- 
ing to  a  great  age. 

1000.  This  tree  is  distinguished  by  the  smoothness  and  whiteness 
of  its  bark  in  the  middle  and  upper  part  of  its  trunk  and  branches. 
The  outer  bark  falls  off  in  large,  irregular  scales,  leaving  a  surface 
which,  in  winter,  is  very  white,  but  gradually  becomes  darker  col- 
ored.    This  striking  feature  in  winter  enables  one  to  observe  the 
course  of  a  stream  for  a  great  distance  by  the  line  of  sycamores 
along  its  banks. 

1001.  The  seeds  of  this  tree  form  a  compact,  spherical  ball,  which 
remains  on  till  spring,  when  it  falls  off  and  the  seeds  scatter,  just  as 
the  leaves  are  about  to  open.     This  tree  is  very  easily  cultivated, 
and  bears  the  smoke  and  dust  of  cities   better  than   many  other 
kinds,  perhaps  from  the  shedding  of  its  outer  bark  from  time  to 
time. 

1002.  Our  native  plane-tree  is  perfectly  naturalized  in  Europe, 
and  grows  rapidly  and  to  a  great  size.     It  is  chiefly  planted  along 
public  roads  and  canals,  and  in  parks  and  pleasure  grounds,  growing 
best  on  deep,  humid  soils,  and  in  sheltered  localities.     The  wood  is 
much  esteemed  for  cabinet  wares,  and  for  this  use  is  reputed  as  dur- 
able as  the  oak,  but  it  does  not  bear  exposure  to  the  weather  well. 
The  sycamore  is  easily  propagated  from  the  seed,  or  from  cuttings 
or  layers.     The  seedlings  need  protection  at  first,  but  they  grow 
rapidly,  and  will  bear  transplanting  early. 

1003.  THE  MEXICAN  SYCAMORE  (P.  racemosd)  is  found  extending 
into  Southern  California,  and  grows  to  a  majestic  tree,  sometimes  six 
feet  in  diameter  and  a  hundred  feet  high.     Like  the  species  in  the 
Atlantic  States,  it  thrives  along  rivers,  its  bark  exfoliates  in  large 
flakes,  and  its  general  habit  is  much  the  same.     The  leaves  are, 
however,  more  deeply  cut,  polished,  and  of  darker  green,  and  the 
bark  remarkably  white.     The  fruit  grows  in  racimes  of  from  three 
to  six,  instead  of  being  solitary,  as  in  the  common  species.     The 
wood  is  very  brittle. 

1004.  THE  ORIENTAL  PLANE-TREE  (P.  orientalis*) ,  in  its  native 


The  Horse- Chestnuts,  etc. 


253 


climate,  grows  to  magnificent  size, 
but  as  cultivated  in  Europe  it  does 
not  equal  our  common  American 
species.  It  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  England  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 

is  often  found  in  parks,  but  is  not    136.  Cross-section  of  the  wood  of 

*  the  Platanus  onentalis. 

valued  as  a  timber-tree. 


137.  Platanus  racemosa.    (Leaf  and  Fruit,  one-half  the  Natural  Size.) 

THE  HORSE-CHESTNUTS,  BUCKEYES,  etc.  (Genus  ^Esculus). 
1005.  The  genus  ^Esculus  embraces  about  fifteen  species,  half  of 


254 


The  Horse- Chestnuts. 


which  occur  in  North  America,  and  the  rest  in  Asia.  Their  bark  is 
bitter  and  astringent,  and  has  been  used  in  some  species  for  tanning. 
The  seeds  contain  a  bitter  principle  that  renders  them  unpalatable, 
but  it  is  said  that  starch  has  been  made  from  them  that  was  equal  to 
that  from  wheat. 

1006.  THE  HORSE-CHESTNUT  (JEsculus  hippocastanum).     This  is 
a  native  of  Asia,  but  is  found  perfectly  well  adapted  to  the  North- 


138.  The  Horse-chestnut  Tree. 

ern  and  Middle  States,  and  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers 
and  its  stately  and  rapid  growth.  It  is  better  suited  for  lawns  than 
for  avenues,  and  is  not  of  much  value  as  a  timber-tree.  There  are 
a  considerable  number  of  varieties  distinguished  by  the  color  of  the 
foliage  and  blossoms,  and  the  habit  of  growth. 

1007.  THE  OHIO  BUCKEYE  (jEtculus  glabrd).  This  tree  grows  from 
Western  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  westward  to  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  is  most  abundant  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky.  It 
is  a  small  tree,  with  a  rough  bark,  which  has  an  unpleasant  odor. 
Its  fruit  is  less  than  half  the  size  of  that  of  the  horse-chestnut. 


The  Buckeyes.  255 

1008.  THE  SWEET  OR  BIG  BUCKEYE  (JEscuhis  flaw).     This  oc- 
curs in  the  Western  States  and  on  the  mountains  in  the  Southern 
States,  as  a  tree  from  60  to  80  feet  in  height,  and  3  to  4  feet  in  di- 
ameter.    Upon  the  lowlands  in  the  south  it  is  a  shrub  from  3  to  6 
feet  high.     It  prefers  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  is  an  indication  of  a 
rich  soil.     The  seeds  are  larger  than  those  of  the  common  horse- 
chestnut. 

1009.  THE  SMALL  BUCKEYE  (JEscuhis  pavia).     This  is  a  shrub 
from  3  to  10  feet  high,  found  growing  in  fertile  valleys  from  Vir- 
ginia southward  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  Arkansas.     It  some- 
times grows  to  a  small  tree.     The  root  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
soap. 

1010.  The  JEsculus  parviflora  is  a  small  shrub  found  in  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  with  a  fruit  said  to  be 
edible. 

1011.  THE  CAIFORNIA  BUCKEYE  (^Esculus  Ccdifornica).     This  is 
a  shrub  seldom  growing  more  than  twenty  feet  high,  or  more  than 
a  foot  in  diameter.     It  puts  forth  flowers  in  successive  crops  during 
most  of  the  spring  and  summer,  and  for  this  reason  may  be  desir- 
able for  ornamental  planting,  although  of  no  account  as  a  timber- 
tree,  as  its  wood  is  soft  and  brittle.     It  occurs  from  San  Luis  Obispo 
to  Mendocino  Co.  and  Mt.  Shasta,  and  on  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains. 

1012.  THE  TEXAS  BUCKEYE  (Ungnadia  speciosa).     This  occurs 
in  Texas,  where  it  forms  a  small  shrub  or  tree,  with  brittle  wood, 
alternate  and  unequally  pinnate  leaves,  and  showy  rose-colored  blos- 
soms.    The  seeds  are  sweet-tasted  like  the  walnuts,  but  are  said  to 
possess  emetic  properties.     It  somewhat  resembles  the  hickories  in 
its  leaves,  but  more  the  horse-chestnut  in  its  fruit. 

1013.  THE  SOAPBERRY  (Sapindus  saponaria).     This  is  a  small 
tree,  growing  upon  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  from 
20  to  50  feet  in  height.     It  derives  its  name  from  the  soap-like 
properties  of  the  fruit,  which,  when  pounded  up,  forms  a  lather 
with  soft  water,  and  may  be  used  instead  of  soap.     When  bruised 
and  thrown  into  water,  the  fruit  will  intoxicate  fish.     This  tree  be- 
longs to  the  same  family  as  the  buckeyes.     There  are  one  or  two 
other  species  in  the  southwest.     There  are  about  forty  species  of  the 
Sapindus  known,  chiefly  found  in  the  tropical  and  sub  tropical  cli- 
mates, in  which  alone  it  can  be  cultivated  with  success. 


256 


The  Locust,  and  nearly  related  Genera. 


THE   LOCUST. 

1014.  THE  COMMON  LOCUST  (Robinia  pseudacacia).  This  is  some- 
times called  the  "  black  locust,"  the  "yellow  locust,"  or  the  "  false 
acacia,"  and  occurs  native  west  of  the  Alleghenies  from  Pennsylva- 
nia to  Arkansas.  In  the  Carolinas,  it  is  found  native  only  in  the 


139.  Leaves  and  Flower  of  the  JEscnlus  Calif ornica,  of  one-half  the 
Natural  Size.     (See  page  255.) 

lower  mountain  ridges,  but  it  is  thought  that  it  once  grew  wild  at 
some  distance  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  where  it  is  not  now  found  in 
its  native  state. 

1015.  It  is   widely  diffused  by  cultivation  in  all  the  Atlantic 
States  and  in  Europe.     The  rapidity  of  its  growth,  the  beauty  of  its 


The  Locust.  257 

blossoms,  the  solidity  and  durability  of  its  wood,  have  heretofore 
led  to  high  expectations  of  great  profit  in  its  planting ;  and  in  the 
early  settlement  of  the  prairie  region  of  Illinois  and  elsewhere,  it 
was  for  many  years  a  great  favorite. 

1016.  These  hopes  were  in  many  regions  so  effectually  disap- 
pointed by  the  "borers"  that  the  trees  not  wholly  destroyed  by 
them  were  to  a  great  extent  cut  down,  and  the  planting  discon- 
tinued.    The  most  destructive  of  these  borers  are  the  larva?  of  the 
Cyllene  pida,1  already  noticed  [§  721],  although  there  are  two  or 
three  other  species  that  commit  great  injuries.     One  of  these  is  a 
little  reddish  caterpillar,  that  bores  into  the  pith  of  the  twigs,  which 
become  spongy  and  brittle.     Another  is  a  large  grub  of  an  insect, 
which  in  its  perfect  state  is  a  moth.    These  bore  upwards  and  down- 
wards, in  oblique  directions,  in  the  solid  wood,  the  holes  increasmg 
in  size  as  they  grow,  and  finally  coining  through  the  bark  to  the 
outside  of  the  trunk. 

1017.  The  locust  does  not  generally  succeed  well  when  grown  in 
company  with  other  trees.     It  is,  however,  thought  by  some  that 
when  planted  alternately  with  the  box- elder,  it  is  less  liable  to  the 
attack  of  borers.2    The  age  at  which  a  locust  coppice  should  be  cut 
depends  much  on  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.     At  ten  or 
fifteen  years  it  yields  excellent  poles  for  fencing  and  other  use,  but 
the  timber  is  of  greatest  value  when  kept  properly  thinned  out,  at 
forty  or  fifty  years.     Upon  the  banks  of  streams,  and  in  light  shift- 
ing sands,  it  takes  a  remarkable  growth,  as  it  also  does  upon  shel- 
tered slopes  in  a  hilly  region,  where  it  gets  a  good  exposure  to  the 
air  and  light.     It  is  more  profitable  to  plant  it  in  clumps  or  groups 
in  these  favorite  spots  than  over  great  areas.     Its  strong  tendency 
to  sprout  renders   it   inconvenient   on   the   borders  of   cultivated 
grounds. 

1018.  The  locust,  under  cultivation,  produces   many  varieties, 
some  with  upright  and  others  with  pendant  or  twisted  and  deformed 
branches.     It  is  in  some  varieties  thornless,  and  in  others  the  leaves 

1  Known  as  the  Cossus  Roblnae,  as  named  by  Professor  Peck,  "by  whom  it 
was  supposed  that  it  remained  three  years  in  the  caterpillar  state  The 
same  insect,  or  some  one  very  nearly  like  it,  perforates  the  trunks  of  the 
red  oak. 

Forestry  Annual,  1881,  p.  15. 

17 


258  The  Locust,  Coffee-  Tree,  etc. 

are  crisped  or  otherwise  deformed,  and  the  flowers  assume  various 
yellow  and  pink  colors,  and  different  sizes  and  forms  of  growth. 
From  its  tracing  roots  it  sends  up  sprouts  in  great  abundance,  and 
it  may  be  propagated  from  these  with  great  facility. 

1019.  The  wood  of  the  locust  is  fine  grained,  yellowish,  hard,  and 
very  durable.     For  this  reason,  it  is  much  used  for  trenails  of  ves- 
sels.    It  is  also  very  durable  as  posts  and  for  studding  of  wainscots 
in  damp  situations. 

1020.  THE  CLAMMY  LOCUST  (Robinia  viscosa).     This  is  a  small 
tree,  native  in  the  mountains  from  Southern  North  Carolina  to 
Georgia,  where  it  grows  to  the  height  of  forty-feet.     It  derives  its 
name  from  a  glandular-viscid  secretion  upon  the  pods,  leaf-stems, 
and  twigs. 

1021.  THE  RosE-LocusT  (Robinia  hispida).     This  is  a  small  and 
hispid  species,   found  upon   the  mountains  of  the  Carolinas   and 
Georgia  and  in  pine  barrens.     It  'is  sometimes  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment, the  blossoms  being  twice  the  size  of  the  common  lo'cust  and 
of  a  rose-red  tinge. 

1022.  KENTUCKY  COFFEE-TREE (Gymnodadus  Canadensis).    This 
tree,  one  of  the  leguminous  family,  grows  native  in  the  Western 
States,  and  to  great  perfection  in  Kentucky  and  the  southern  parts 
of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.     It  occurs  in  Western  New  York 
and  west  of  the  Niagara  river  in  Canada,  and  extends  westward  to 
Nebraska.     Under  the  most  favorable  conditions,   it  grows  from 
sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height.     The  bark  is  rough,  the  branches 
stout  and  abruptly  terminated,   appearing  in  winter  like  a  dead 
tree.     It  has  doubly  pinnate  leaves,  a  dense  fine-grained  wood,  suit- 
able for  cabinet  work.     It  is  readily  propagated  from  the  seeds,  but 
these  must  be  scalded  and  left  soaking  in  warm  water  for  some 
hours  before  planting. 

1023.  THE  HONEY-LOCUST  (Gleditschia  triccmthos).     This  tree  is 
found  widely  diffused,  but  grows  to  greatest  size  in  the  Southern 
State?.     It  is  nowhere  abundant,  but  often  cultivated  for  ornament, 
and  affords  an  excellent  tree  for  hedges.    In  favorable  circumstances, 
it  grows  to  the  height  of  fifty  feet  or  more,  with  a  diameter  of  two 
to  three  feet.     The  wood  is  hard,  close-grained,  and  suitable  for 
many  uses  in  manufactures,  and  is  said  to  be  very  durable  when 
used  as  posts.     It  extends  westward  into  Iowa  and  Nebraska,  and 
southward  to  Mississippi. 


The  Red- Bud:  The  Acacias.  259 

1024.  This  species  offers  many  inducements  for  planting.     It  is 
not  troublesome  from  sprouting,  as  is  the  common  locust ;   it  is  far 
less  liable  to  insect  injuries,  and  after  the  first  year  it  is,  hardy.     It 
bears  transplanting  much  more  easily  than  most  other  trees. 

1025.  THE  WATER-LOCUST  (Gleditschia  monaqperma).     This  is  a 
small  tree,  growing  in  swamps  along  the  Gulf  States  and  as  far 
northward  as  Southern  Illinois.     It  is  of  but  small  size,  and  the 
wood  of  little  value. 

1026.  RED-BUD  OR  JUDAS-TREE  (Cercis  Canadensis).     This  is  a 
small  but  highly  ornamental  tree,  which  is  covered  in  spring  with 
bright  red  blossoms.     One  of  its  common  names  was  given  by  Ger- 
ard, an  old  English  gardener  (1596),  who  says  that  ''this  is  the 
tree  whereon  Judas  did  hange  himselfe,  and  not  upon  ye  elder,  as  it  is 
said."    The  common  European  species  is  the  0.  dliquastrwn. 

1027.  The  red-bud  is  found  native  on   river  banks  from  New 
Jersey  southward  to  Florida,  and  in  the  Western  States.     It  grows 
to  the  height  of  from  15  to  30  feot,  and  is  often  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment.    The   small,   deep,   rose-colored    flowers   appear   before   the 
leaves,  in  clumps  of  4  to  8,  in  March  and  April.     The  fruit  has  an 
acid  taste. 

THE  ACACIAS. 

1028.  The   genus   Acacia   numbers   about    400    species,   chiefly 
found  in  warm   climates,  and  most  abundant   in    Australia  and 
Africa.     We   have   about    a    dozen   native   species,    chiefly   herb- 
aceous, on  the  southern  borders  of  the  United  States,  and  one 
(A.  Gregcjii)  in  California.     Several  species  of  the  WATTLE  (Acacia 
pycnantha — the  "  broad  leaf,"  "  golden,"  and  "  green  "  wattle ;  A.  de- 
currens,  the  "black"  wattle;  and  A.  dealbata,  or  "silver"  wattle) 
are  extensively  used  in  Australia,  and  exported  from  thence  as  a 
tanning  material.     The  wattles  grow  readily  on  loose,  sandy  soil, 
and  might  be  cultivated  in  the  milder  regions  of  the  United  States, 
and  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

1029.  The  wood  is  tough,  hard,  and  durable,  and  is   used   for 
staves,  spokes  of  wheels,  tool  handles,  and  many  other  purposes. 
The  acacias  exude  a  gum   that  has  commercial  value,  and  furnish 
excellent  firewood.     The  quality  of  the  bark  for  tanning  depends 
much  upon  the  soil,  and  it  is  of  much  less  value  when  grown  upon 
a  limestone  formation.     The  tree  is  not  long  lived,  and  it  is  at  its 
prime  when  about  ten  years  old,  at  which  age  the  wood  is  nine  or 


260  The  Acacias:   The  Pears  and  Apples. 

ten  inches  in  diameter.  In  extreme  cases,  it  becomes  two  feet 
thick.  The  yield  of  tanning  extract  varies  from  thirty  to  forty-five 
per  cent. 

1030.  THE  VICTORIA  MYALL  (Acacia  homalophylla).     This  lias  a 
dark-brown  wood,  and  is  much  used  for  turner's  work,  and  is  valued 
on  account  of  its  solidity  and  fragrance.     It  is  also  much  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco  pipes. 

1031.  THE  BLACKWOOD  (A.  melanoxylon)  grows  on  river  flats  and 
in  moist,  fertile  valleys.     In  irrigated  valleys  and  a  deep  soil,  it 
will  attain  a  height  of  eighty  feet,  and  several  feet  in  diameter. 
The  wood  is  prized  for  furniture,  railway  carriages,  boat  building, 
billiard  tables,  the  sounding-boards  of  pianos,  etc.,  and  for  veneers. 
It  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  fully  equal  to  the  best  of  walnut.     It 
bends  very  well  when  steamed. 

1032.  YELLOW-WOOD   (Cladrastis  tinctoria).      This    species,   de- 
scribed by  Michaux  as  the  "  Virgilia  latea"  and  often  known  among 
nurserymen  as  the  "  virgilia,"1  occurs  native  in  deep,  fertile  soil  in 
Western  Tennessee  and  in  Kentucky,   growing,   as  a  tree,   from 
twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  and  sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter.     It  has 
a   smooth,   greenish   bark,    and   a   yellow   heart-wood,    which  im- 
parts its  color  to  water,  and  is  used  as  a  domestic  dye.     It  bears 
large,  white  flowers,  and  is  cultivated  successfully  for  ornament  in 
the  middle  latitudes,  and  as  far  north  as  Central  New  York. 

THE  PEARS  AND  APPLES  (Genus  Pirus). 

1033.  This  numbers  about  forty  species,  natives  of  the  North 
Temperate  Zone,  and  widely  cultivated  for  their  fruit.     In   some 
cases,  they  are  valuable  for  their  wood,  which  is  solid,  fine-grained, 
and  of  uniform  texture ;  well  adapted  for  turning,  and  for  certain 
kinds  of  wood-engraving,  although  much  inferior  to  the  boxwood. 
It  makes  an  excellent  fuel,  and  in  some  regions  it  may  be  cultivated 
profitably  for  this  use. 

1034.  In  the  open  country  east  of  the  Cascade   mountains  in 
Washington  Territory,  it  appears  to  be  particularly  well  adapted  for 

1  The  Virgilia  is  a  distinct  genus,  not  represented  in  the  native  flora  of 
the  United  States.  The  V.  capensis  is  a  tree  growing  in  South  Africa. 
There  is  but  one  other  species  of  the  Cladrastis,  and  that  grows  in  Mant- 
choura,  in  Asia. 


The  Mountain  Ash:  The  Sweet- Scented  Crab  Tree.   261 


this  use,  and  the  Surveyor-General  of  that  Territory,  in  a  report 
made  in  1881,  says  that  a,  grove  of  apple  or  pear  trees,  if  set  out  at 
twelve  feet  apart,  will  attain  a  wonderful  height  in  a  few  years. 
The  fruit  will  be  worthless,  but  the  timber  will  grow  straight  and 
tall,  if  the  bodies  are  thus  kept  shaded;  and  adds:  "I  doubt  if 
more  valuable  timber  could  be  grown,  for  either  fuel  or  manufactur- 
ing purposes,  all  things  considered.  Such  trees  would  grow  wher- 
ever planted  with  but  little  care  or  expense." 

1035.  THE  MOUNTAIN  ASH  (Firm  Americana).  This  species 
grows  in  high  northern 
latitudes,  from  Green- 
land and  Labrador  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  and 
in  the  New  England 
and  Northern  States. 
It  is  generally  found 
upon  mountains,  and 
grows  to  a  small  tree. 
The  fruit,  which  is  red, 
remains  on  during  the 
winter,  and  it  is  often 
cultivated  for  orna- 
ment. It  much  resem- 
bles the  European 
mountain  ash  (P.  au- 
cuparia),  but  does  not 
grow  to  so  large  a  size. 
The  latter  grows  freely 
throughout  the  North- 
ern States  under  culti- 
vation, and  is  highly  gp^  (M| 
ornamental  when  in  ^^  jr 

fruit  140.  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit  of  the  Mountain  Ash. 

1036.  THE  SWEET-SCENTED  CRAB  TREE  (Pints  coronaria).  This 
tree  grows  in  Western  New  York,  and  as  far  west  as  Iowa,  and 
southward  to  Georgia  and  Louisiana.  It  forms  a  tree  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  high,  and  is  sometimes  cultivated.  The  fruit,  when 
ripe,  is  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  greenish-yellow, 
somewhat  translucent,  and  extremely  acid. 


262 


The  Plums  and  Cherries. 


1037.  THE  OREGON  CRAB- APPLE  (Pirus  rivularis').  This  occurs 
as  a  shrub,  usually  forming  dense  thickets,  but  sometimes  growing 
as  a  tree  from  15  to  25  feet  in  height,  and  a  foot  in  diameter,  from 
Alaska  southward  along  the  islands  and  the  mainland  as  far  as  So- 
noma county,  California.  It  has  a  very  hard  wood,  susceptible  of  a 
line  polish,  and  useful  in  mill  work,  where  there  is  great  wear.  Its 
fruit  is  prized  by  the  Indian  for  food.  • 

-  1038.  THE  WESTERN  MOUNTAIN  ASH  (Pirus  sambucifolia).  This 
is  a  small  shrub,  growing  at  great  elevations  upon  the  Sierras,  and 
sparingly  in  various  parts  of  the  interior  of  British  America.  It  is 
usually  a  shrub  from  4  to  8  feet  in  height. 

THE  PLUMS  AND  CHERRIES  (Genus  Prunus). 

1039.  This  numbers  about  eighty  species,  widely  scattered  over 

the  North  Temperate 
Zone,  and  of  these 
some  twenty  are  found 
in  North  America, 
and  fourteen  in  the  At- 
lantic States.  Upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  half 
a  dozen  species  occur, 
:all  of  them  shrubs, 
arid  cf  but  slight  ac- 
count either  for  their 
wood  or  their  fruit. 
These  species  are  often 
planted  at  great  dis- 
tances from  the  par- 
ent tree,  their  seeds 
being  dropped  undi- 
gested by  birds. 

1040.  THE  BLACK 
CHERRY  (Prunus  se- 
rotina).  This  tree,  in 
a  rich  soil,  grows  very 
rapidly,  and  forms  one 
of  the  most  valued  of 

141.  Wild  Black  Cherry  —  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit.      our  native   woods  for 


The  Plums  and  Cherries.  263 

cabinet  work.  It  is  almost  equal  to  mahogany,  which  it  in  some 
degree  resembles  when  darkened  by  age.  .  It  grows  readily  from 
the  seed,  which  may  be  planted  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring, 
and  they  generally  do  best  if  started  in  the  place  where  the  tree  is 
to  remain.  The  1  ark,  especially  that  of  the  roots,  possess  valuable 
tonic  and  sedative  qualities,  and  afford  the  basis  of  various  remedies 
sold  in  market.  The  leaves  are  also  sometimes  used  in  domestic 
medicine. 

1041.  This  tree  is  found  to  be  well  adapted  to  prairie  planting  in 
Illinois,  Iowa,  and  other  Western  States.     In  a  deep,  rich  soil,  it 
sometimes  attains  a  great  size.     It  is  noticed  that  the  fruit  improves 
in  quality  and  size  under  cultivation,  and  it  begins  to  bear  at  an 
early  age. 

1042.  BIRD  CHERRY  (Prunus  Pennsylvanica).     This  tree  grows 
to  a  small  tree,  but  is  short-lived,  and  its  wood  is  too  small  and  per- 
ishable to  be  much  value  for  any  purpose  but  fuel.     It  is  very  apt 
to  spring  up  on  land  that  has  been  burnt  over;  often  intermingled 
with  poplars,  and  gradually  giving  place  to  larger  and  more   hardy 
kinds.     The  fruit  grows  in  small  clusters  like  the  garden  cherry. 
The  cherries  are  small,  acid,  and  a  favorite  food  of  birds,  through 
whose  agency  the  growth  of  this  tree  on  a  burnt  district  may  be 
probably  ascribed. 

1043.  THE  CHOKE-CHERRY  (Prunus  Virginiana).     This  derives 
its  name  from  the  astringent  property  of  its  fruit,  which  grows  in 
racimes  like  grapes  or  currents.     This  species  grows  in  dense  thick- 
ets, and  not  of  sufficient  size  to  be  of  value  for  its  wood. 

10-14.  THE  CAROLINA  PLUM  (Prunus  Caroliniana).  This  is  a  highly 
ornamental  southern  species,  with  evergreen  foliage,  and  growing  to 
a  height  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet.  It  has  a  very  regular  oval 
head,  and  smooth  branches.  Its  leaves  are  said  to  be  very  poison- 
ous to  cattle.  It  occurs  on  the  coast  and  islands  of  the  Caroliuas 
and  Georgia,  and  is  well  adapted  for  ornamental  planting. 

1045.  THE  CHICASAW  PLUM  (Prunus  Chicasa).  This  is  a  native 
of  the  South-western  States,  but  is  extensively  naturalized  in  the 
South,  and  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  the  North.  The  fruit  is  small, 
and  rather  astringent,  but  runs  into  varieties,  some  of  which  are 
much  prized.  It  has  been  sometimes  cultivated  as  a  hedge-plant, 
and  is  worthy  of  notice  in  tree-planting  in  the  Western  States. 


264  The  Thorn-Tree:  The  Service- Berry. 

Several  other  species  of  this  genus  grow  in  the  United  States,  but 
none  of  them  of  much  importance  in  forestry. 

THE  THORN-TREE  (Genus  Cratcegus). 

1046.  Between  sixty  and  seventy  species  occur  in  Europe,  in  East- 
ern Asia,  and  Japan,  and  in  North  America.  About  fifteen  species  are 
found  in  Canada,  the  United  States,  and  Mexico.     The  quality  of 
their  wood  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  apple-tree.     They  are  of 
slow  growth,  and  unimportant  as  timber-trees,  but  they  are  in  some 
regions  remarkably  well  adapted  for  hedges,   being  thorny,  and 
very  scraggly  in  their  growth,  presenting  a  thicket  that  is  quite  im- 
penetrable by  man  or  beast. 

1047.  Two  species  are  found  in  California,  viz.,  C.  rivalaris  and 
C.  Douglasii.     They  are  shrubs  or  small  trees,  the  former  growing 
to  10  or  15  feet,  and  the  latter  from  18  to  25  feet,  with  stout  spines 
and  black  or  dark  purple  fruit. 

1048.  THE  SCARLET-FRUITED  THORN  (Cratcegus  coccinea).     This 
thorn,   when  grown  as  a  hedge-plant,   should  be   trained  to  grow 
thin  and  tall,  which  can  be  done  best  by  weaving  in  the  branches 
in  one  direction,  and  trimming  them  in  the  other. 

1019.  DOTTED-FRUIT  THORN  (Cratcegus  punctata).  This  is  a 
common  species  in  the  Atlantic  States,  growing  naturally  along 
the  borders  of  rivers,  and  is  easily  transplanted.  When  properly 
trimmed  and  managed,  it  makes  a  superior  hedge-plant.  The  fruit 
is  dull  red,  or  yellowish,  and  dotted,  and  the  leaves  are  wedge- 
shaped,  tapering  below  into  a  slender  leaf-stem. 

THE  SERVICE-BERRY  (Genus  Amelanchier). 

1050.  Some  four  or  five  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  South- 
ern Europe,  Asia-Minor,  Japan,  and  North  America.     Of  these  the 
A.  Canadensis,  variously  known  as  the  ''shad-bush,"  "june-berry," 
etc.,  is  common  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  A.  alnifolia  upon  the 
Pacific  coast.     They  are  shrubs  of  small  size,  of  no  great  interest 
to  the  forester.     The  wood  of  the  western  species  is  very  hard,  and 
is  used  by  the  Indians  for  various  purposes.     The  berries  are  dried 
and  stored  away  by  them  in  large  quantities  for  winter  use. 

THE  EUCALYPTUS. 

1051.  Of  the  genus  Eucalyptus  (of  the  natural  orders  Myrtacece), 


The  Eucalyptus.  265 

about  150  species  are  described,  chiefly  natives  of  Australia  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  of  these  the  best  known  is  the  E.  globulus. 
This  was  first  discovered  by  Labillardiere,  in  Tasmania,  in  1792, 
but  was  not  much  noticed  in  Europe  until  1861.  M.  Prosper 
Hamel,  who  had  seen  it  growing  in  a  botanical  garden  in  Melbourne, 
was  so  impressed  with  its  probable  value  for  cultivation  in  Europe, 
that  he  sent  the  seeds  to  Paris  in  1860,  and  attempts  in  planting 
were  made  the  next  year.  It  grew  remarkably  well,  but  was  killed 
down  in  winter,  and  it  is  now  well  known  that  it  can  not  survive 
the  frost,  at  least  not  till  the  wood  is  several  years  old.  It  thrives, 
however,  very  well  in  Southern  France,  and  is  found  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  cultivation  in  Algeria. 

1052.  It  has  been  tried  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  but 
not  with  much  success,  excepting  in  California,  where,  within  the 
influence  of  the  coast  climate,  but  not  in  the  interior  valleys,  it 
thrives  with  great  luxuriance,  provided  that  the  temperature  never 
goes  down  below  about  28°  (F.).     The  influence  of  the  sea-air  ap- 
pears to  give  it  some  immunity  against  frost. 

1053.  Under  favorable  conditions,  the  growth  is  truly  wonderful. 
A  section  was  shown  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  in  1878,  but 
eleven  years  old,  that  came  from  a  tree  sixty  feet  high  and  thir- 
teen and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  at  five  feet  from  the  ground. 

1054.  About  twenty  species  of  the  eucalyptus  have  been  tried  in 
that  state,  of  which  half  a  dozen  have  been  planted  to  some  extent, 
and  probably  three-fifths  of  them  are  the"  blue-gums"  (E.  globu- 
lus), the  rest  being  chiefly  the  E.  viminalis,  F.  marginata,  and  E.  ros- 
trata.    Of  these  the  first  has  attracted  the  most  attention,  on  ac- 
count of  its  rapid  growth,  although  its  timber  is  less  valuable  than 
some  other  hard-wooded  species.     It  is  estimated  that  six  millions 
of  this  tree  had  been  planted  in  the  ten  years  preceding  1882,  mostly 
in  streets  and  yards,  in  cities,  villages,  and  around  dwellings. 

1055.  The  E.  cornuta  and  E.  gigantea  have  shown  a  susceptibility 
to  the  frost  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  E.  globulus,  although  the  E. 
rostrata  and  E.  virrtinalis  are  more  hardy.    Of  1 20,000  trees  planted 
at  Tipton,  and  well-cared  for,  nearly  all  of  the  E.  globulus,  E.  cornuta, 
and  E.  gigantea  died  within  two  years,  and  the  E.  rostrata  thrived, 
but  grew  slowly. 

1056.  The  texture  of  the  wood  thus  rapidly  grown  is  soft  and 
sappy,  as  compared  with  that  hardened  by  age,  but  it  is  highly 


266  The  Eucalyptus. 

probable  that  it  would  all  the  more  readily  admit  of  the  injection 
of  creosote,  or  the  mineral  salts  in  solution,  that  would  render  it 
hard,  strong,  and  durable. 

1057.  The  mature  wood  is  rather  pale,  and  not  so  ornamental 
as  many  others  of  the  genus,  but  it  takes  a  good  polish,  is  hard, 
durable,  and  nearly  equal  to  English  oak  as  a  building  timber,  but 
it  will  not  bear  contact  with  the  soil  or  water  as  well  as  the  red-gum, 
iron-bark,  and  box-eucalypts.     It  varies  in  solidity  according  to  the 
conditions  of  its  growth,  and  is  sometimes  too  heavy  to  float.     It 
is  used  in  ship-building,  carriage-making,  and  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  and  for  telegraph  poles  and  railway  ties. 
In  its  native  country  it  is  a  favorite  material  for  fencing,  and  va- 
rious farm  uses. 

1058.  As  to  profit  in  the  cultivation  of  the  Eucalyptus  globulus  in 
California,  we  hav'e  returns  of  twenty  acres  cleared,  when  eleven 
years  old,  to  make  room  for  an  orchard,  in  which  after  charging 
every  item  of  cost,  and  a  yearly  rental  of  $5  per  acre,   the  net 
profits  were  $3,866.04,  or  about  $17.57  per  acre  annually.     When 
used  as  fuel,  the  wood  should  be  split  immediately  after  felling,  or 
otherwise  it  becomes  soggy  and  worthless. 

1059.  In  a  paper  presented  at  the  American  Forestry  Congress 
at  Cincinnati,*  in  April,  1882,  by  Prof.  B,  E.  C.  Stearns,  of  the 
California  State  University,  after  presenting  the  leading  facts  in 
reference  to  tree-planting  in  that  state  witii  evident  fairness,  he 
adds :  "  If  one-half  of  the  trees  planted,  as  represented  by  the  pre- 
ceding figures,  arc  still  living  and  growing,  the  past  has  been  really  a 
very  great  success.     If  new  plantations  are  being  made  at  the  rate 
of  say  only  50,000  or  75,000  per  annum,  the  present  is  full  of  prom- 
ise, and  the  future  full  of  hope." 

1060.  The  seeds  of  the  E.  globulus  are  small  (about  10,000  to  an 
ounce),  and  will  keep  their  vitality  about  four  years.     The  lower 
leaves  are  broad  and  heart-shaped,  but  the  upper  ones  turn  edge- 
wise, so  as  to  present  both  sides  to  the  light,  and  are  long-pointed 
and  curved  flatwise.     For  this  reason  this  tree  does  not  shade  the 
ground  so  much  as  most  forest  trees. 

1061.  The  leaves,  when  rubbed,  emit  a  strong  aromatic  odor, 
and  afford  by  distillation  an  essential  oil  that  is  found  to  possess 
valuable  medicinal  qualities.     About  the  year  1870,  the  exporta- 
tion of  this  oil  from  Australia  by  a  single  manufacturer  amounted 


The  Eugenias :   The  Cornel  Family.  267 

to  over  12,000  pounds.  It  is  used  also  for  scenting  soaps,  for  di- 
luting the  oil  of  roses,  and  for  other  perfumes.  The  alcoholic  ex- 
tract of  the  leaves  is  found  to  be  efficacious  in  intermittent  fever, 
and  the  balsamic  odors  emitted  while  growing  are  believed  to  be 
salutary  in  certain  diseases.  From  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  this 
tree  evaporates  a  large  amount  of  water  that  is  taken  up  by  the 
roots,  and  has  a  tendency  by  this  means  to  promote  the  drainage  of 
pestilential  swamps.1 

1002.  In  its  .native  country  the  blue-gum  grows  to  the  enormous 
size  of  400  to  500  feet  in  height,  and  over  80  feet  in  circumference. 
It  even  rivals  the  giant  trees  of  California  in  height,  but  not  in 
symmetry  of  proportion  and  in  solid  contents.  Among  the  other 
species  of  this  genus  there  are  many  that  grow  to  colossal  size,  and 
some  that  excel  in  beauty  and  durability  of  the  wood. 

1063.  THE  EUGENIA  belongs  also  to  the  allspice  family  (Myr- 
tacece),  and  four  or  five  species  occur  as  small  trees  or  shrubs  in 
Southern  Florida.     The  wood  closely  resembles  that  of  boxwood, 
and  is  found  to  be  equally  suitable  for  wood-engraving.     It  is,  how- 
ever, of  small  size,  and  has  not  hitherto  been  brought  into  use  for 
this  purpose.     An  immense  number  of  species  of  this  genus  have 
been  described,  of  which  about  five  hundred  are  deemed  well  char- 
acterized, and  some  two  hundred  others  as  less  certain.     They  are 
chiefly  natives  of   tropical   and  sub-tropical   regions  in  Asia  and 
America,  and  a  few  are  found  in  Australia  and  Africa. 

THE  CORNEL  FAMILY  (C&rnacece). 

1064.  This  embraces  about  a  dozen  genera,  and  less  than  a  hun- 
dred species,  and  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  north  tem- 
perate zone.     They  are  mostly  unimportant  shrubs,  but  some  of 

1In  the  autumn  of  1881,  the  author  visited  the  Abbey  of  Trois-Fontaines, 
near  the  city  of  Rome,  and  saw  the  operations  of  planting  this  tree  that 
were  going  on,  about  150  convicts  being  employed  in  the  labor.  The  seeds 
are  sown  in  boxes  filled  with  rich  soil,  and  the  plants  were  taken  out  with- 
out disturbing  the  roots,  and  set  in  places  first  prepared,  and  well-watered. 
They  need  watering  the  first  season,  but  afterwards  will  take  care  of  them- 
selves. The  soil  is  excessively  hard  and  dry.  This  region  was  so  unhealthy 
that  the  abbey  had  been  wholly  abandoned.  The  planting  began  about 
1868,  and  the  place  is  now  inhabited  by  a  great  number  of  persons,  and  in 
1881,  for  the  first  time,  the  convicts  were  lodged  upon  the  premises  instead 
of  being  taken  back  to  the  city  every  night  as  formerly. 


268  The  Sour-Gum. 

them  grow  to  a  useful  size  as  trees.  Their  bark  is  bitter  and  tonic, 
and  their  wood  generally  very  hard  and  fine-grained. 

10G5.  Of  the  genus  Cornus,  we  find  in  the  United  States  about  a 
dozen  species.  Of  these  in  the  Atlantic  States  the  FLOWERING 
DOGWOOD  (C.  Jlorida)  is  perhaps  the  most  important,  as  well  for 
cultivation  as  an  ornamental  tree,  as  for  the  solidity  and  excellence 
of  its  wood. 

10G6.  The  C.  Nidtallii  grows  in  California,  and  northward  to  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  to  the  size  of  50  to  70  feet,  and  bears  a  showy 
blossom.  Its  wood  is  close-grained  and  hard,  and  it  is  well  worthy 
of  cultivation.  There  are  about  half  a  dozen  other  species  of  this 
genus  in  California. 

THE  SoUR-GuM  (Genus  Nyssa). 

1067.  This  genus,  also  belonging  to  the  Cornacece,  of  which  five 
or  six  species  are  found   in  the  north  temperate  zone,  in  North 
America,  the  Himalaya  region,  and  Malay  archipelago.     The  san- 
dal-wood of  commerce  belongs  to  this  family. 

1068.  THE  PEPPERIDGE  (N.  multiflora)  occurs  in  the  Atlantic 
States  from  New  England  southward  to  the  gulf  coast.     It  is  va- 
riously named  the  "  tupelo,"  "  hornbeam,"  "  snag-tree,"  etc.,  and 
grows  chiefly  in  swamps,  and  often  to  a  large  size.     Its  wood  is  ex- 
ceedingly fibrous  and  difficult  to  split,  and  this  quality  renders  it  a 
valuable   material   for  wagon-hubs,   the  best  being   found   in  the 
swamps  of  Maryland  and  the  sea-coast  of  New  Jersey,  where  it  is 
found  in  perfection. 

1069.  When  used  for  hubs,  it  should  be  cut  in  the  early  part  of 
winter,  and  from  five  to  ten  feet  from  each  tree,  near  the  butt,  may 
be  taken.     It  should  be  at  once  deprived  of  the  bark,  and  be  cross- 
piled  in  dry  open  sheds  for  three  years  or  more,  until  thoroughly 
dried.     The  best  qualities  are  fined-graiued,  heavy,  and  the  fibers 
of  the  wood  are  so  woven  together  that  it  can  scarcely  be  split  by 
any  force  that  can  be  applied. 

1070.  The  wood  is  also,  for  this  reason,  much  used  for  making 
packing-boxes  that  require  great  strength,  and  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
it  is  used  in  making  pipes  for  distributing  the  brine  at  the  salt 
works  in  that  vicinity.     Four  other  species  of  the  Nywa,  occur  in 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 


The  Elders:  The  Haw  and  the  Button- Bush.        269 

THE  ELDERS  (Genus  Sambucus) . 

1071.  The  two  principal  species  of  the  elder  found  native  in  the 
United  States  are  unimportant  shrubs.     One  of  them,  the  red-ber- 
ried elder,  (S.  pubens)  has  sometimes  an  arborescent  form,  and  is 
occasionally,  but  rarely,  found  15  to  18  feet  high.     The  S.  glauca  of 
California  and  Oregon  is  sometimes  of  this  height,  and  from  six  inches 
to  a  foot  in  diameter.     The  European  elder  (S.  racemosa,  and  S.  nigra) 
grows  to  a  tree  of  considerable  size  at  the  base,  but  not  high  in  pro- 
portion, and  the  young  branches  are  straight,  and  with  a  relatively 
large  pith,  as  in  the  common  elder  (S.  Canadensis)  cf  the  Atlantic 
States.     Its  berries  are  sometimes  used  in  making  pies,  and  their 
juice  in  making  wine.     Of  the  elders,  about  ten  or  twelve  species 
are  known,  chiefly  natives  of  temperate  regions,  except  one  or  two 
found  in  South  Africa  and  some  upon  mountains  within  the  tropics. 
This  genus  and  the  following  belong  to  the  natural  order  Caprifo- 
liacece : 

HAW:  SLOE:  ARROW- WOOD  (Genus  Viburnum). 

1072.  Of  this  genus  about  eighty  species  are  described,  and  about 
a  dozen  are  native  in  the  United  States.     They  are,  for  the  most 
part,  unimportant  shrubs,  growing  in  swamps,  or  damp  woods,  but 
some  of  them  preferring  a  dry  situation,  and  occasionally  they  be- 
come small  trees. 

1073.  The  black  haw  (V.  pninifolium)  grows  to  the  height  of  20 
feet,  and  the  V.  lentago  to  an  equal  size.     Both  have  a  wide  range 
towards  the  north  and  west,  and  varieties  of  the  former  endure  a 
dry  climate  quite  well,  and  may  help  to  make  up  some  diversity  in 
the  forest  culture  of  the  western  regions. 

1074.  The  Viburnum  opulm  is  the  "high  cranberry,"  sometimes 
cultivated  for  its  fruit,  or  as  an  ornamental  hedge-plant.     A  garden 
variety  of  this  species,  introduced  from  Europe,  has  large  showy 
white  flowers,  all  sterile,  and  is  known  as  the  "  snow-ball  bush."   It  is 
easily  propagated  by  sprouts  from  ,the  root,  and  by  layers,  and  has 
a  hard  fme-graincd  wood. 

1075.  THE  BUTTOX-BUSH  (Cephalanthus  occidentalis) ,  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Itubiacece,  is  an  unimportant  shrub,  growing  throughout 
the  Northern  and  Western  Stares  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.     It  pre- 
fers the  margins  of  swamps  and  a  rich  soil,  and  sometimes  grows  to 
a  small  tree,  but  is  too  small  sized  for  any  useful  purpose.     The 


270 


The  Silver-Bell:   The  Ash. 


fruit  closely  resembles  in  form  that  of  the  plane-tree,  but  is  smaller. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  pond  dogwood." 

THE  SNOW- DROP,  or  SILVER-BELL  TREE  (Genus  Halesia'). 
1076.  The  family  to  which  this  tree  belongs,  (Styracece')  contains 
but  two  genera  within  the  United  States,  and  this  genus  but  five 
species,  of  which  two  are  found  in  North  America,  one  in  China, 
and  two  or  three  in  Japan.  Our  species  are  small  trees,  found  in 
the  Southern  Atlantic  States,  and  bear  showy  white  flowers.  They 
are  often  cultivated  for  ornament.  The  H.  diptera  is  found  in  rich 
woods  along  the.  Gulf  States  :  the  H.  tetraptera  occurs  in  woods  and 
along  streams  in  West  Virginia,  and  from  Illinois  to  Florida,  mostly 
upon  or  near  mountains,  and  the  H.  parviflora  is  a  southern  species. 


THE  ASH  (Genus  Fraxinus). 


142.  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit  of  the  Ash. 


1077.  This  belongs 
to  the  olive   family 
(Oleacece),  which  in- 
cludes,  besides,   the 
European    olive,    so 
valued   for  its   fruit 
and  oil,  the  Forsyth- 
ias,    lilacs,    privets, 
and  fringe-tree,  that 
have  been  introduced 
for  ornamental  plant- 
ing. 

1078.  The  Europ- 
ean   ash    (Fraxinus 
excelsior')  is  generally 
found  growing  with 
other  kinds,  and  sel- 
dom alone.  It  thrives 
best  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate, and  is  found, 
not  only  upon  plains, 
but    on    slopes   and 
plateaus  of   consid- 
erable size.     It  sue- 


The  White  Ash.  271 

ceeds  best,  however,  in  the  former,  but  not  upon  clay  nor  sand.  It 
generally  bears  seeds  early  and  abundantly  every  year.  Its  leaves 
are  often  gathered  as  forage.  The  wood  is  used  to  advantage  in 
places  always  wet  or  always  dry,  but  it  does  not  bear  alternate  ex- 
posures. The  timber  is  especially  valued  in  carriage- making,  and 
for  various  manufactures. 

1079.  The  genus  Fraxinus  includes  about  a  dozen  species  within 
the  United  States,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  following : 

1080.  WHITE  ASH  (Ftaximis  Americana).     This  tree  prefers  a 
deep  and  somewhat  damp  soil,  and  grows  in  congenial  situations 
rapidly  and  to  a  large  size.     The  wood  of  second-growth  white  ash 
lias,  perhaps,  no  equal  for  lightness,  elasticity,  and  strength,  and  is 
largely  used  for  the  handles  of  forks,  rakes,  etc.,  scythe  snaths,  ag- 
ricultural implements,  carriage-making,  cooperage,  and  other  man- 
ufactures, and  when  fcawn  into  thin  boards  it  furnishes  a  highly  or- 
namental wood  for  joinery  and  carpenter  work. 

1081.  The  large  "  burls"  that  form  on  its  trunk  are  especially 
valued  for  the  making  of  veneers.     The  wood  splits  with  great  ease 
and  regularity,  and  is  much  used  for  hoops,  basket  work,  and  the 
bottoming  of  chairs. 

1082.  The  white  ash  ranks  among  our  best  timbers,  where  grown 
upon  dry  ground  and  under  favorable  conditions.     The  wood  is 
light,  strong,  elastic,  and  durable.     As  grown  in  open  ground,  it 
gains  rapidly  in  size,  and  the  wood  is  of  superior  quality  for  scythe 
snaths,  fork-handles,  and  in  wagon-making.     In  a  dry  climate  it 
does  not  grow  as  well  as  the  green-ash,  but  the  latter  does  not  grow 
to  so  large  a  size. 

1083.  The  ash  is  best  raised  from  the  seeds,  which  may  be  gath- 
ered in  the  fall,  and  kept  in  a  cool  damp  place  till  spring.     They 
may  be  planted  like  corn,  but  not  over  an  inch  in  depth.    They  may 
be  transplanted  from  nurseries  with  facility,  but  do  not  get  so  early 
a  start  as  when  planted  where  they  are  to  remain.     If  planted  in 
rows,  about  three  feet  apart  and  two  feet  between  trees,  in  a  cool  and 
damp,  but  not  wet  soil,  the  alternate  trees  will,  at  the  end  of  ten 
years,  afford  the  best  of  hoop-poles,  and  afterwards,  at  intervals  of 
ten  or  fifteen  years,  other  thinnings  of  much  greater  value.     As  an 
ornamental  tree,  it  thrives  finely  in  full  exposure,  but  t.;e  shade  is 
not  d<  nse. 

1084.  The  white  ash  grows  in  moist  woods,  from  Canada  to  Flor- 


272  The  Ashes. 

ida  and  Louisiana.  A  variety  (microcarpa) ,  with  remarkably  small 
fruit,  is  found  in  Alabama,  and  another  variety  (Texensis,  perhaps 
a  distinct  species),  is  found  in  Texas,  near  the  Rio  Grande. 

1085.  BLACK   ASH  (Fraxinus    sambucifolia) .      This   ash   grows 
chiefly  in  swamps,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  greater  number  of 
its  leaflets  and  the  blunt  appearance  of  its  branches,  as  compared 
with  those  of  the  preceding  species. 

1086.  This  tree  grows  very  commonly  in  the  Eastern,  Northern, 
and  North-western  States.     The  wood  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  of 
the  white  ash,  but  is  used  for  hoops,  and  the  large  knots  upon  the 
trunk  are  turned  into  bowls.     It  should  never  be  planted  upon  dry 
land,  but  on  the  borders  of  swarnps  and  in  humid  soils.     It  may  be 
planted  closely,  for  the  thinnings  have  value  from   a  small  size, 
being  suitable   for  hoop-poles,  poles,  etc.,   up  to  sizes  suitable  for 
fence-rails,  rafters,  and  sills. 

1087.  THE  GREEN  ASH  (Fraxinus  viridis)  is  a  small  or  middle- 
sized  tree,  having  much  the  same  range  as  the  white  ash,  and  found 
well  adapted  to  cultivation  in  the  prairie  region. 

1088.  THE  BLUE  ASH  (Fraxinus  quadrangulata]  is  a  large  tim- 
ber-tree found  growing  in  dry  woods  in  the  Western   States,  from 
Michigan  to  Tennessee.     It  derives  its  name  from   the  bluish  tinge 
which  its  inner  bark  gives  to  water  when  macerated  in  it. 

1089.  THE  WATER  ASH   (Fraxinus  platijcarpa)  is  a  middle-sized 
tree  growing  in  swamps  from  Virginia  to  Louisiana. 

1090.  THE  RED  ASH  (Fraxinus  pubcscens),  a  middle  or  large- 
sized  tree  growing  from  Canada  to  Dakota,  and  south  to  Florida. 

1091.  THE  OREGON  ASH  (Fraxinus  Oregona)  is  a  low-spreading 
tree,  common  along  the  Columbia  river  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley.     It  seldom  grows  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter 
by  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height. 

1092.  The  following  may  be  mentioned  only  by  their  botanical 
names,  as  of  less  importance,  viz.: 

Fraxinus  anomala,  a  shrub  or  low  tree  in  Southern  Utah. 

F.  cuspidata,  a  shrub  five  to  eight  feet  high  in  New  Mexico. 

F.  dipelala,  a  small  tree  in  Western  California. 

F.  Greggii,  a  shrub  five  to  eight  feet  high  found  on  limestone  soil 
in  South-western  Texas  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Mexico. 

F.  pistaticefolia,  a  small  tree  found  in  South-western  Texas,  and 
westward  to  Arizona. 


The  Olive:   The  Lilac:  The  Walnut  Family.        273 


THE  OLIVE.     (Genus  Oka). 

1093.  This  embraces  about  thirty-five  species,  found  in  tropical 
Asm  and  the  region  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean.     The  com- 
mon European  olive  (0.  Europea)  has  been  long  under  cultivation 
in  California,  but  not  to  considerable  extent. 

1094.  THE   WILD   OLIVE  of    the   Southern   States   (Osmanthus 
Americana)  has  about  the  same  range  as  the  live-oak,  and  is  worthy 
of  cultivation  as  affording  some  variety,  but  it  does  not  grow  to  a 
large  size. 

THE  LILAC.     (Genus  Syringa). 

1095.  Of  this  there  are  about  half  a  dozen  species,  natives  of 
Eastern  Europe  and  Asia.     They  form  desirable  shrubs  for  cultiva- 
tion, on  account  of  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  their  blossoms,  but 
are  of  too  small  size  to  be  important  in  forest  culture. 

THE  WALNUT  FAMILY.     (Juglandece). 

1096.  This  embraces  five  genera,  and  some  thirty-two  species, 
widely  scattered  over  the  northern  hemisphere  of  both  continents, 
and  upon    mountains   within   the  tropics.     The  two  genera  of  es- 
pecial interest  are  the  Carya  and  Juylans,  or  the  hickories  and  the 
walnuts,    both     of 

which  are  of  the 
greatest  importance 
as  timber-trees,  and 
several  of  them  ofj 
great  value  for  their 
fruit. 

1097.  All  of  this 
family    yield,    when 
tapped  in  spring,  a 
sweetish   sap,    that 
may   be    evaporated 
down  to  syrup  and 

SUgar.      The  amount  143.  The  Walnut.— Leaves  and  Fruit. 

is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  render  it  an  object,  and  the  injury  to 
the  trees  would  be  much  greater  than  any  benefit  that  could  be  de- 
rived from  this  practice. 

18 


274 


The  Hickories. 


144.  The  Walnut.— Yon \\g  Leaves  Blossoms, 
and  Nut. 


THE  HICKORIES.     (Genus  Can/a). 

1098.  These  occur  native  only  in  North  America,  although  fossil 

species  are  found  in  Europe. 
About  ten  living  species  are 
known  in  the  United  States 
and  Mexico.  The  wood  of  the 
hickories  is  generally  heavy, 
hard,  close-grained,  and  re- 
markably strong  and  elastic. 
As  a  fuel  they  rank  higher 
than  any  other  of  our  native 
woods. 

1099.  THE  PECAN-NUT 
(Carya  olivceformis) .  This  is 
found  growing  to  the  height 
of  sixty  to  seventy  feet  along 

the  country  bordering  the  Mississippi  and  the  lower  Ohio,  from  Iowa 
southward  to  Louisiana,  and  westward  in  Indian  Territory.  The  wood  is 

coarse-grained ,  hard ,  strong, 
and  durable,  but  not  so  val- 
uable as  that  of  some  other 
species.  The  fruit  of  the 
pecan  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  best  of  the  hickories, 
and  occasionally  a  tree  is 
found  upon  which  it  is  ex- 
ceptionally fine.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  but  that  these 
could  be  greatly  improved 
by  cultivation,  and  that  the 
finer  varieties  could  be 
grafted  upon  other  species, 
and  grown  with  much 
profit. 

1100.  THE  BITTER  HICK- 
ORY (Carya  amara).  This  species  occurs  -from  New  England  and 
New  York,  and  southward  into  the  Caroliuas,  where  it  is  occasion- 
ally found  from  the  coast  to  the  mountains.  It  grows  best  in  a  cool 


145.  Carya  oiivseformis — The  Pecan-nut. 


The  Hickories.  fa  NI  V  BR  S  I  T  1 


rich  soil,  but  the  timber  is  not  equal  to  that  of 
It  comes  to  greatest  perfection  in  the  Western  States  , 
as  far  west  as  Nebraska.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "swamp  hickory." 
110J.  THE  SHELL-BARK  HICKORY  (Carya  alba).  This  is  one  of 
the  most  widely  distributed  and  most  valuable  of  the  hickories.  It 
is  found  from  Massachusetts  to  Nebraska,  and  is  particularly  well 
developed  in  deep  fertile-soil  in  the  Western  States.  In  West  Vir- 
ginia it  is  sometimes  found  eighty  to  a  hundred  feet  in  height,  and 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  Its  timber  is  highly 
prized  in  carriage-making,  but  is  not  durable  in  the  weather.  It  is 
found  somewhat  sparingly  in  North  Carolina,  and  is  most  common 
in  the  Southern  States,  upon  the  uplands  of  the  interior. 

1102.  THE  WHITE-HEART  HICKORY  OR  MOCKER-NUT  (Carya  to- 
mentosd).     This  species  is  found  from  New  England  southward  to 
the  Carolinas,  and  westward  to  Iowa  and  Nebraska.     In  North  Car- 
olina it  grows  to  sixty  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  from  twenty  inches 
to  two  feet  in  diameter.     It  extends  from  the  coast  to  the  mountains, 
and  is  the  only  hickory  that  grows  on  the  "  barrens."     Its  timber  is 
much  used  in  carriage-making. 

1103.  THE  THICK  SHELL-BARK  HICKORY  (Carya  sidcata).     This 
is  chiefly  a  western  species,  and  grows  in  rich  soils  to  eighty  and  a 
hundred  feet  in  height  and  three  feet  in  diameter. 

1104.  THE  BROOM-HICKORY  OR  PiG-NuT  (Carya  poreina).     This 
is  the  most  common  species  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  and 
is  found  westward  to  Nebraska.     Its  fibers  are  very  tough,  and  it  is 
sometimes  made  into  brooms.     Under  favorable  conditions  it  grows 
•to  four  feet  in  diameter. 

1105.  THE  PiG-NuT  HICKORY  (Carya  glabra).     This  species  is 
somewhat  widely  distributed,  and  is  found  disseminated  among  other 
hickories  in  North  Carolina  and  southward.     It  is  found  westward 
to  Iowa. 

1106.  THE  WATER  BITTER-NUT  HICKORY  (Carya  aquatica).  This 
is  found  in  swamps  in  North  Carolina.     Its  timber  is  of  poorer  qual- 
ity than  that  of  any  other  of  the  hickories. 

THE  BLACK  WALNUT,  .  BUTTERNUT,  ETC.  (Genus  Juglans). 

1107.  Of  this  genus,  seven  or  eight  species  are  known  in  temper- 
ate and  sub-tropical  regions,  cf  .which  one  is  found  in  Europe  and 
Central  Asia,  two  in  Eastern  Asia  and  Japan,  and  four  or  five  in 


276  The  Black  Walnut. 

Canada,  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
fruit  is  oily  and  richly  flavored,  and  is  sold  in  the  markets  for  eat- 
ing, and  when  young  and  before  the  shell  hardens,  it  is  often  used 
as  pickles.  The  outer  husk  of  the  fruit,  and  sometimes  the  bark, 
are  used  in  dyeing. 

1108.  TiiE  BLACK  WALNUT  (Juglans  nigra).     This  tree  derives 
its  name  from  the  color  of  the  heart-wood,  which  is  of  a  dark  tinge, 
and  it  has  long  been  a  favorite  material  for  cabinet-wares.     When 
exposed  to  the  weather,  it  is  durable,  and  in  the  first  settlement  of 
regions  where  it  was  common  it  was  much  used  for  posts  and  rails. 

1109.  When  the  wood  of  this  tree  has  a  waved  or  curly  grain,  it 
is  highly  prized  for  veneers.     Such  pieces  are  best  obtained  from  a 
crotch  of  large  limbs,  or  from  the  stump  and  large  roots,  or,  better 
still,  from  the  large  burls  or  excrescences  that  are  sometimes  found 
on  the  trunk.    Enormous  prices  have  been  paid  for  single  trees  hav- 
ing an  exceptionally  fine  grain. 

1110.  This  may  be  justly  regarded  as  among  the  most  valuable 
of  our  native  species,  and  in  a  rich  and  rather  humid  soil  is  among 
the  most  profitable  to  plant.     It  will  grow  very  well,  but  not  so 
rapidly,  upon  lands  that  are  dry,  and  in  a  climate  approaching  the 
arid,  and  it  is  found  well  adapted  for  cultivation  upon  the  prairies 
and  the  eastern  borders  of  the  great  plains.     As  it  sends  down  a 
strong  tap-root,   and  is   very  liable  to  suffer  in  transplanting,  it 
should  always  be  planted  where  it  is  to  remain.     This  may  be  done 

.in  autumn  or  early  in  the  spring,  and  if  the  latter,  from  nuts  that 
have  been  exposed  to  freezing,  as  elsewhere  described. 

1111.  There  is  another  fact  to  be  noticed,  in  reference  to  this 
tree,  that  deserves  attention.     In  the  more  westerly  States,  where 
the  blue-grass  thrives,  it  is  very  apt  to  get  into  a  black  walnut 
grove,  and  unless  carefully  kept  out  by  cultivation,  it  will  injure  its 
growth.     This  happens  from  the  fact  that  the  grass  starts  very 
early,  and  even  matures  its  seed  before  the  foliage  of  the  trees  is 
fully  opened. 

1112.  It  is  therefore  best  to  plant  it  alternately  with  other  trees 
that  put  forth  their  leaves  earlier,  although  they  may  not  be  worth 
as  much  for  their  wood,  such  as  soft  maples,  box-elder,  or  cotton- 
wood.     The  latter  have  the  further  advantage  of  compelling  the 
black  walnut  trees  to  run  up  straight  and  high,  and  they  serve  to 
shelter  and  protect  it  from  the  hot  sun  and  from  drying  winds. 


The  Butternut.  277 

1113.  These  nursing-trees  may  be  taken  out  when  the  gro\vth  be- 
comes too  dense,  and  they  will  be  then  of  use  as  fuel  and  for  various 
farm  purposes.     An  acre  of  laud  requires  for  planting  about  seven 
bushels   of   black  walnuts  with   the   shucks   on.     They  must   be 
planted  early,  and  in  a  dry  prairie  soil  they  require  to  be  covered 
more  deeply  than  in  a  humid  soil. 

1114.  In  Canada,  the  black  walnut  once  abounded  in  the  country 
drained  by  the  tributaries  of  the  St.  Clair  river,  but  it  has  now  be- 
come scarce,  and  from  present  prospects  it  will  soon  disappear  as  a 
native  timber  tree. 

1115.  BUTTERNUT    (Juglam  cinerea).     This   tree,    when  grown 
alone,  is  noted  for  its  broad-spreading  habit,  but  in  woods,  among 
other  trees,  it  grows  to  forty  or  sixty  feet  in  height.     Its  lumber  is 
brownish-white,  and  in  texture  much  like  that  of  the  black  walnut. 
It  works  smoothly,  takes  a  good  finish,  and  is  much  used  for  inside 
finishings. 

1116.  This  tree  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States,  is  easily  raised  from  the  nuts,  and,  like  the  black 
walnut,  it  is  difficult  to  transplant.     It  prefers  a  rich,  calcareous 
soil,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  its  growth  is  quite  rapid. 
It  must,  however,  be  crowded  laterally,  if  we  wish  to  have  it  form 
a  tall  straight  trunk. 

1117.  The  bark  of  the  butternut   has  medicinal  properties  that 
give  it  the  specific  name — Cathartica,  as  applied  by  Micaux.     It  is 
also  sometimes  used  for  dyeing,  and  it  possesses  some  tanning  prop- 
erties. 

1118.  Juylans  Californica.     This  is  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree, 
but  sometimes  found  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  height  and  from  two  to 
four  feet  in  diameter.     It  occurs  in  California,  from  San  Francisco 
southward. 

1119.  Jucjlam  rupestris.     This  is  a  shrub  found  in  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  and  Arizona,  and  grows  to  from  six  to  twenty  feet  in  height. 

THE  WILLOWS  AXD  POPLARS.     (Natural  Order  Salitinece). 

1120.  This  natural  order  embraces  only  the  wdllows  and  the  pop- 
lars, concerning  which  botanists  differ  greatly  in  the  classification. 
They  are  scattered  over  the  north  temperate  and  borders  of  the 
Arctic  zone ;  some  occur  within  the  tropics,  and  a  few  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  but  none  in  Australia  or  on  the  islands  of  the  South- 
ern Pacific. 


278  The  Willows. 

THE  WILLOWS.     (Genus  Salix). 

1121.  The  willows  form  a  great  number  of  species,1  and  run  into 
hybrids  and  varieties  that  render  their  study  botanically  a  matter 
of  unusual  difficulty.2     They  occur  in  a  great  variety  of  soil,  but 
generally  prefer  humid  localities,  and  many  kinds  occur  chiefly 
along  the  borders  of  streams.    Their  roots  in  such  places  present  the 
most  efficient  means  for  preventing  erosions,   and  they  may  be 
planted  for  this  purpose  with  great  success. 

1122.  Willows  produce  seeds  much  like  those  of  the  poplars,  and 
these  ripen  in  the  spring.    They  are,  however,  best  propagated  from 
cuttings  from  the  robust  young  wood  or  in  sections  from  the  roots. 

1123.  These  cuttings  may  be  made  late  in  the  fall  or  in  winter, 
but  always  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  before  the  sap  starts  in  the 
spring.     They  should  be  selected  from  sound   and  thrifty  young 
wood,  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  tied  in  bundles  and  set  in  a 
damp  cellar,  their  lower  ends  set  in  sand  or  wet  moss,  and  their 
tops  prevented  from  drying ;  or,  instead  of  this,  they  may  be  set  in 
trenches  not  liable  to  standing  water,  and  covered  from  the  frost. 
They  should  be  set  early  in  spring,  in  ground  previously  prepared, 
and  will  need  cultivation  till  they  are  above  the  reach  of  weeds. 

1124.  There  are  several  of  the  willows  that  grow  to  large  trees 
and  produce  valuable  timber.     Their  rapidity  of  growth,  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  is  remarkable.     The  wood  is  light,  tough,  and 
easily  worked,  and  in  some  kinds  it  is  used  for  hoops,  tool  handles, 
and  turned  wares.     The  bark  contains  tanning  and  medicinal  qual- 
ities, and  the  charcoal  from  its  wood  is  used  for  making  gunpowder. 

1  About  160  in  number,  of  which  about  f>0  occur  in  North  America. 

2  It  is  remarked  by  Grigor  that  "there  is  no  genus  of  plants  in  general 
cultivation  whose  species  are  more  confused  than  that  of  the  willow.     This 
is  accounted  for  partly  from  the  more  prominent  kinds  having  been  hj'brid- 
ized,  and  yielded  intermediate  varieties  without  number,  and  partly  from 
each  species,  containing  male  and  female  plants,  and  the  same  species  dif- 
fering to  some  extent  in  appearance  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.     Add 
to  this  the  circumstance  of  old  trees  assuming  a  very  different  appearance 
from  young  ones,  and  that  no  tree  is  more   apt  to  change  its  appearance 
from  a  change  of  soil  and  climate,  and  it  will  not  be  surprising  that  some 
confusion  should  exist  in  the  genus,  and  that  the  more  prominent  species 
only  should  be  readily  recognized."     (Arboriculture,  page  310.) 


The  Willows.  279 

The  ashes  of  the  willow  are  rich  in  potash,  and  the  leaves  in  some 
countries  are  gathered  for  feeding  sheep  in  winter. 

1125.  Among  the  willows  of  large  growth,  the  WHITE  WILLOW 
(S.  alba)  is  by  far  the  most  important.     It  is  sometimes  called  the 
gray  or  Huntingdon  willow,  and  is  already  widely  introduced  in  the 
prairie  region  of  the  northwest,  where  it  is  valued  above  all  others 
as  a  wind-break. 

1126.  The  white  willow  is  found  to  thrive  exceedingly  well  in 
Northern  Iowa  and  in  Minnesota,  as  a  hedge  and  screen.     It  grows 
with  great  rapidity,  and  its  wood  is  useful  as  a  fuel,  and,  when 
peeled  and  seasoned,  as  poles  for  all  kinds  of  farm  uses.     When 
.split  and  nailed  to  posts,  it  makes  a  very  good  fence. 

1127.  This  willow  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings,  as  already 
described,  and  they  should  be  set  rather  deep  in  soil  liable  to  drouth, 
and  so  thick  that  they  will  shade  the  ground  early,  but  care  should 
be  taken  to  thin  them  out  as  soon  as  they  become  crowded. 

1128.  THE  ROUND-LEAVED  OR  GOAT- WILLOW  (S.  caprea).     Tin's 
is  one  of  the  kinds  of  willow  that  grow  to  a  large  size,  with  a  tough 
elastic  wood,  of  about  the  same  market  value  as  the  birch.     The 
bark  is  used  for  tanning  leather.    This  willow,  in  England,  is  much 
prized  for  coppice-growth,  where  there  is  a  demand  for  hoops,  poles, 
rods  for  crates,  sheep-fences,  or  similar  uses,  and  no  tree  cut  once  in 
three  or  four  years  will  yield  in  a  short  period  a  greater  bulk  of 
faggot  wood.     On  congenial  soil,  the  growth  of  one  season  is  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  an  inch  in  diameter  at  a  yard  from 
the  ground.     It  grows  forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  and  from  one  and  a 
half  to  two  feet  in  diameter.     It  stands  exposure  to  the  sea  winds 
better  than  most  trees. 

1129.  THE  BEDFORD  WILLOW  (S.  Eusselliana)  is  of  rapid  growth, 
and   the  wood  equal  to  that  of  the  white  willow,  if  not  superior. 
The  RED- WOOD  WILLOW  (S.  fragilis).    This  has  a  light,  tough,  and 
durable  wood,  but  when  old  it  is  very  liable  to  die  .at  the  top.    The 
specific  name  is  given  from  the  facility  with  which  the  twigs  used 
for  basket-work,  break  from  the  tree,  although  the  twigs  themselves 
are  tough  and  pliable. 

1130.  Willow,  when  sawn  into  boards,  is  extremely  light,  but 
tough,  and  is  not  apt  to  splinter  or  receive  damage  from  the  fall  or 
friction  of  hard  materials.     It  is  for  this  reason  much  prized  as  a 
lining  for  cart-bodies  and  barrows.     In  England  it  is  highly  prized 


280  The  Osier  Willow. 

for  railroad-brakes,  as  it  is  Dot  readily  set  on  fire  by  friction.  In  the 
works  constructed  for  preventing  the  erosion  of  mountain  torrents, 
bundles  of  willow  are  often  fastened  down  in  the  beds  of  streams, 
where  they  sometimes  take  root  and  grow.  In  the  jettys  constructed 
by  Captain  Eades,  for  improving  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  for 
navigation  in  recent  years,  the  willow  was  the  principal  brush-wood 
employed. 

Cultivation  of  the  Osier  or  Basket-  Willow. 

1131.  Although  this  is  scarcely  a  branch  of  forestry  in  its  prdi- 
nary  sense,  it  is  often  noticed  in  connection  with  it,  and  as  it  involves 
some  principles  in  cultivation  in  common  with  tree-planting,  we  will 
concisely  state  the  principal  rules  concerning  it.     It  deserves  favor 
on  account  of  the  small  capital  that  it  employs,  the  large  amount  of 
hand-labor  that  it  affords  at  remunerative  prices,  and  the  considerable 
amount  of  money  that  would  be  saved  to  the  country  were  the  sup- 
plies that  we  use,  wholly  produced  upon  our  own  soil.1     It  is  fur- 
ther to  be  noticed,  that  willows  may  be  cultivated  upon  soil  too 
marshy  for  most  kinds  of  farm-crops,  and  that  the  labor  they  fur- 
nish may  be  carried  on  through  the  year. 

1132.  The  soils  best  adapted  for  the  willow  are  rich  alluvions, 
and  reclaimed  swamps,  and  the  land  should  be  sufficiently  drained. 
It  would  bo  better  if  means  were  provided  for  irrigation  in  dry  sea- 
sons.    If  liable  to  overflow  in  spring  floods,  it  should  have  ditches 
at  proper  intervals  for  sooner  carrying  off  the  water. 

1133.  In  preparing  an  osier  field  for  planting,  it  should  be  cleared 
of  all  vegetation,  and  the  soil  should  be  mellowed  by  plowing  or 
spading  late  in  the  fall  before  planting. 

1134.  The  kinds  of  willow  preferred  in  Europe  are  chiefly  the 
following : 

1.  Red- willow  (Salix  purpurea). 

2.  Ural  willow  (S.  purpurea  var.   Uralensis). 

3.  White  osier  (S.  vim'uialis). 

4.  Narrow-leaved  willow  (S.  rubra  or  S.  viminalls-purpurea') . 

5.  Soft-leaved  willow  (£  mollissima). 

C.  Caspian  willow  (S.  acutifolia  or  S.  pruinosa). 

1135.  These,  under  cultivation,  run  into  varieties,  so  that  their 

1  During  the  ten  years  ending  in  1870,  the  annual  importation  of  prepared 
willow  averaged  $33,000,  and  that  of  willow-work  $170,000. 


The  Osier  Willow.  281 

distinctive  characters  are  lost.  They  differ  greatly  in  habit  of 
growth,  hardiness,  and  qualities  suitable  for  various  uses.  The 
kinds  suited  to  a  given  location  can  not  be  known  before  trial,  and 
those  who  may  engage  in  this  planting  will  do  well  to  experiment 
with  several  kinds  before  planting  largely  with  any.  In  starting  an 
osier  plantation,  it  is  recommended  to  obtain  the  cuttings  in  the 
latter  part  of  February  cr  the  first  of  March,  and  carefully  kept 
from  drying  until  ready  for  use. 

1186.  The  finest  stems  should  be  selected,  from  the  wood  grown 
the  year  before.  The  ground  is  marked  out  by  ccrds,  and  some 
prefer  to  run  the  lines  east  and  west.  For  the  kinds  that  are  to 
be  cut  every  year,  they  may  be  set  in  rows  18  to  20  inches  apart, 
and  for  those  to  be  cut  every  second  year,  they  should  be  wider. 
For  the  white  osier  and  the  Caspian  willow  the  space  is  sometimes 
30  inches  between  the  lines,  and  the  intervals  between  are  planted 
with  some  crop.  They  should  be  at  about  one-third  of  these  distances 
between  in  the  rows.  It  is  important  that  the  ground  should  be 
well  shaded,  and  the  plants  always  grow  more  uniform  when  some- 
what crowded  than  when  wider  apart.  In  more  open  spaces,  the 
sprouts  branch,  but  the  wood  is  more  solid  and  durable. 

1137.  The  number  of  cuttings  required  for  an  acre  will  range 
from  18,000  to  75,000,  and  may  b-3  calculated  by  the  aid  of  a  table 
elsewhere  given  in  this  book.     They  must  be  cut  smoothly  into 
lengths  of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  and  pressed  into  the  soil,  the  butt- 
end  first,  so  as  to  leave  about  an  inch  out  of  the  ground.     Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  peel  back  the  bark  in  setting,  and  a  hole  may 
be  made  with  an  old  bayonet,  or  something  of  the  kind,  if  the 
ground  is  a  little  hard.     They  should  slope  at  an  angle  of  45°  to- 
wards the  north. 

1138.  It  is  sometimes  preferable  to  set  in  trenches,  and  in  poor 
soils  to  fertilize  with  leaf-mold,  stable-manure,  or  bone-dust.     The 
manure  should  not  be  put  in  contact  with  the  cuttings,  but  near 
them,  and  it  is  highly  advantageous  to  irrigate  with  the  soakings  of 
manure  during  the  summer. 

1139.  The  ground  should  be  kept  mellow7  and  free  of  weeds,  and 
the  first  cutting,  if  delayed  till  the  second  year,  will  give  a  stronger 
growth  to  the  roots.     After  the  first  the  cutting  may  be  made  an- 
nually, or  on  alternate  years  according  to  the  sizes  desired.     It 


282  The  Osier  Willow. 

should  be  done  with  a  very  sharp  knife,  bent  flatwise  to  a  right  an- 
gle, with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  inside. 

1140.  The  time  of  cutting  should  be  always  late  in  fall,  or  in 
winter,  but  never  in  leaf-time,  nor  when  in  sap.     The  rods  should  be 
be  sorted  into  sizes,  tied  in  bundles,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  stored  in 
a  dry  place  till  ready  for  peeling.     The  rain  discolors  and  injures 
them.     When  peeled,  the  rods  are  first  set  in  the  water,  and  where 
assisted  by  a  constant  and  genial  temperature  this  may  be  done  at 
any  time  in  the  winter.     When  peeled,  they  should  be  dried  for  a 
day  or  so  in  the  sun,  and  if  properly  cared  for  the  wood  will  be 
white  and   brilliant.      If  not,   they  will  have   a  dull  yellow  tint, 
which  may  be  somewhat  whitened  by  sulphur-fumes. 

1141.  The  bark  stripped  from  osiers  may  be  used  for  tieing  bun- 
dles, or  spread  as  litter  in  stables,  and  to  some  extent  be  cut  up  with 
straw  and  fed  to  stock.     It  is  used  in  tanning  leather  for  gloves,  and 
for  the  preparation  of  salicine  for  medicinal  use.     In  common  prac- 
tice, from  18  to  20  per  cent  of  willows  were  damaged,  either  from 
branching,    injury   to   bark,   crooked   form,    or   dead   tops.     They 
sell  at  a  discount  of  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent,  and  are  used  for  in- 
ferior work. 

1142.  When  carefully  managed,  an  osier  field  may  last  25  to  30 
years,  but  a  single  year  of  neglect  will  greatly  shorten  this  period. 
Something  may  be  done  to  restore  vigor,  by  letting  the  shoots  re- 
main over  a  year,  and  by  manuring,  but  as  soon  as  the  yield  begins 
to  fail  it  is  best  to  begin  anew.     If  on  the  same  grounds  the  roots 
should  all  be  taken  out,  and  fresh  soil  from  below  be  brought  to  the 
surface  by  spading. 

1143.  An  osier  plantation  costs  about  $20  to  $30  a  year  for  cul- 
tivation, per  acre,  and  will  yield  from  $100  to  $125.     The  cultiva- 
tion has  its  perils,  as  well  as  its  profits.     It  may  be  injured  by  early 
or  late  frosts,  but  only  to  kill  the  wood  that  has  not  ripened.     The 
willow  is  sometimes  attacked  by  the  saw-fly,  the  Nemaius  ventralis, 
or  nearly  allied  species,  similar  tD  those  that  attack  the  currant  and 
gooseberry,  by  eating  off  the  foliage.     The  best  remedy  is  the  dust 
of  white  hellebore  freely  sprinkled  upon  the  leaves  just  after  the 
eggs  are  hatched.     This  insect  produces  two  broods  a  year,  one  in 
May  and  another  in  September. 

1144.  Among  the  other  enemies  of  the  willow  are  a  kind  of  fly 
(Cecidomya  salicina) ,  which  stings  and  lays  eggs  in  the  tender  sprouts, 


The  Osier  and  the  Dutch  Willows.  283 

causing  a  spongy  excrescence  and  a  scrubby  growth.  These  insects 
in  turn  are  attacked  by  the  ichneumon  insects,  and  the  balance  of 
nature  badly  disturbed  by  the  former,  has  been  restored  in  a  single 
season  by  the  latter.  Another  insect  (Tipula  saliciperda)  and  sev- 
eral small  beetles  have  at  times  proved  injurious. 

1145.  Among  mammals  the  sheep,  goat,  rabbit,  and  mouse  are 
often  destructive,  the  former  by  eating  the  leaves  and  the  latter  by 
^nawiug  the  bark.     The  red  willow,  from  the  bitterness  of  its  bark,, 
is  less  liable  to  injury  than  other  cultivated  kinds.     In  Europe,  wil- 
lows sometimes  suffer  from  hail,  and  insurance  against  this  damage 
may  be  obtained  as  in  other  crops. 

1146.  If  exposed  to  cold  and  dry  winds,  the  osiery  should  be  pro- 
tected by  wind-breaks  of  high  trees,  and  the  oaks,  ashes,  and  firs 
are  recommended  for  this  use.     In  the  cultivation  between  the  rows 
when  wide  apart  the  first  year  beets,  carrots,  cabbages,  or  potatoes 
are  employed.     The  weeding  or  cultivation  should  not  be  done  when 
the  shoots  are  forming.     When  done  in  fall,  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  they  should  be  gathered  and  buried.     The  bind-weed  (Con- 
volvulus, several  sp.)  and  the  dodder  (Cuscata)  sometimes  infest  a 
willow  plantation,  and  must  be  carefully  extirpated. 

1147.  THE  DUTCH  OSIEII  (tialix  lanceolate,)  is   much   used  for 
hoops  and  basket-work,  and  is  best  set  in  spring,  in  trenches  about 
four  feet  apart,  and  from  30  to  40  inches  between,  in  the  rows. 
They  should  be  fertilized  with  stable-manure  as  above  described. 
Upon  dryer  ground  the  plants  may  be  set  a  little  closer  together.  The 
watering   with   manure-water  is  of  first  importance  if  the  soil  is 
poor. 

1148.  When  used  to  turn  the  course  of  rivers  from  encroaching 
upon  laud,  the  willow  should  be  cut  between  October  and  April,  and 
should  be  formed  into  frames,  by  interweaving  the  smaller  spray 
with  larger  timber,  securing  in  place  by  piles,  and  covering  with 
sand,  gravel,  or  soil.     It  is  well  to  load  them  down  also  with  heavy 
stones.     In  a  slight  current  this  will  often  prove  sufficient  to  form 
an  artificial  cape,  and  the  mud  settling  above  and  below  this  obstruc- 
tion will  gradually  extend  out  the  shore.     The  willows  will  push 
out  fibrous  roots  into  the  soil  aiul  sand,  creating  a  surface  vegeta- 
tion, and  may  be  kept  in  this  condition  by  being  cut  back  from  year 
to  year.     If  such  sloping  barriers  can  form  an  angle  up-stream,  the 
effect  is  better. 


284  The  Poplars  and  Cottonwoods. 

1149.  The  raalo  plants  of  the  purple,  black,  yellow,  and  some 
other  willows,  form  very  ornamental  small  trees,  presenting  a  gay 
and  rich  profusion  of  early  blossoms — the  harbingers  of  summer, 
and  the  first  food  of  the  bee. 

THE  POPLARS  AND  COTTONWOODS  (Genus  Populus). 

1150.  Of  these  there  are  about  twenty  species  in  the  north  tem- 
perate zono  of  the  old  world  and  the  new.     They  occur  in  North 
America  from  the  Arctic  zone  to  Mexico,  and  throughout  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

1151.  THE  AMERICAN  ASPEN  (Populus  tremuloides).     This  tree  is 
extremely  wide  in  its  range.     It  abounds  over  the  whole  of  the  in- 
terior of  British  Columbia,  and  towards  the  north  and  east,  char- 
acterizing some  of  the  most  fertile  lands.     In  the  southern  part  of 
tho  Province  it  is  found  usually  along  tho  borders  of  streams,  and 
on  the  higher  plateaux.     In  the  Peace  river  country  it  comes  up 
after  fires,  and  often  grows  to  a  diameter  cf  two  feet. 

1152.  The  aspen  is  common  throughout  the  region  west  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  upon  the  Pacific  coast, 
upon  the  slopes  of  mountains  that  border  the  sage  plains,  along  the 
courses  of  what  in  winter  are  running  streams. 

1153.  In  the  mountain  regions  of  the  interior  it  is  commonly 
called  the  "quaking  asp,"  and  grows  in  the  upper  valleys  often  in 
dense  groves,  where  it  shows  a  tendency  to  succeed  the  coniferous 
woods  when  they  have  been   destroyed.     Its  wood   is  sometimes 
burned  into  charcoal  for  smelting  ores,  and  it  has  sometimes  been 
used  for  telegraph-poles  and  railway  ties,  but  it  is  too  soft  and  per- 
ishable for  any  thing  more  than  temporary  employment  in  these 
uses. 

1154.  The  aspen  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper.     The  wood  makes  a  very  white  pulp,  but  not  as 
strong  as  that  from  spruce. 

1 1 55.  THE  WHITE  POPLAR  (Populus  alba) .  This  is  a  naturalized  for- 
eign species,  sometimes  called  the  "  abele,"  "  downy  poplar,"  "  silver 
poplar,"  or  "  Dutch  beech."    It  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Palestine,  and 
the  timber  is  by  some  writers  supposed  to  be  the  "  shittirn-wood" 
of  Scripture,  but  more  probably  that  was  an  Acacia. 

1156.  This  is  a  tree  of  remarkably  rapid  growth,  and  generally 
it  shows  a  strong  tendency  to  send  up  shoots  from  the  roots.     This 


Tie  Poplars. 


285 


renders  it  troublesome  in  cultivated  ground,  but  is  a  valuable  qual- 
ity in  woodlands.  "When  grown  in  dense  groves  it  runs  up  in  slen- 
der form,  and  in  a  i?aort  time  it  becomes  large  enough  for  poles 
good  for  fencing,  corn-cribs,  and  other  farm  uses.  If  cut  early 
in  summer  it  peels  very  easily,  and  it  is  then  light  but  durable  and 
strong,  if  Dot  placed  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Michaux  recom- 
mended it  for  extensive  cultivation  as  a  substitute  for  the  tulip-tree, 
and  Bryant  regards  it  as  superior  to  any  of  the  native  poplars. 

1157.  It  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young  wood  or  the 
roots,  and  from  layers  and  grafts,  and  grows  with  great  certainty  in 


146.  Populaa  alba. — White  Poplar. 

a  moderately  damp  soil.  The  durability  of  the  wood  is  increased 
by  painting  with  coal-tar,  which  is  best  applied  hot.  The  stronger 
contrasts  between  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  leaf  are  found 
in  the  tender  varieties,  while  the  kind  with  leaves  lobed  like  the 
maple  are  found  to  be  more  hardy. 

1158.  TEE  LOMBAEDY  POPLAR  (Populus  dilatata).  This  tree, 
from  its  tall  columnar  growth,  furnishes  an  admirable  wind-break, 
and  it  is  still  in  France  a  favorite  tree  for  planting  along  the  road- 
side. The  fashion  in  our  New  England  and  Northern  States  was 


286  ThePo2)lars:  The  Cottonwoods. 

formerly  quite  prevalent,  but  the  tree  is  short-lived,  and  most  of 
these  monotonous  lines  of  trees  have  disappeared.  When  planted 
here  and  there,  so  as  to  be  seen  rising  behind  and  among  round- 
headed  and  coniferous  trees,  it  has  a  pleasing  effect.  The  wood  is 
soft,  brittle,  and  of  little  value  except  for  summer  fuel. 

1159.  This  tree  bears  no  pistilate  flowers  in  our  country,  and  it 
can  only  be  propagated  from  cuttings  and  sprouts  from  the  roots. 
Its  chief  value  is  for  screens  and  wind-breaks,  and  in  rich  humid 
soils  it  grows  with  great  rapidity. 

1160.  THE    LARGE-TOOTHED  POPLAR    (Popuhis    grandidentata). 
This  tree  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  its  wood  is  valuable  for  framing 
and  lumber  for  inside  work.     It  works  smoothly,  takes  a  good  pol- 
ish, and  is  not  liable  to  shrink.     When  cut  and  peeled  in  summer 
it  is  durable  in  the  open  air,  if  not  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
This  tree  is  very  well  suited  for  inside  planting  in  groves.     It  can 
be  readily  propagated  from  seeds  and  cuttings. 

1101.  For  cultivation  in  the  great  open  country  east  of  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains,  in  Washington  Territory,  the  poplars  become  es- 
pecially important  timber  trees,  both  as  fuel  and  for  fencing. 
The  common  aspen,  as  grown  there,  when  peeled  and  seasoned,  may 
be  used  for  almost  any  purpose,  if  kept  from  the  ground.  A  tree 
24  years  old,  has  been  known  to  measure  two  feet  across  the  stump, 
and  to  yield  two  cords  of  wood. 

THE  COTTONWOODS. 

1162.  Various  species  of  the  genus  Populus  are  comprised  under 
this  name,  the  principal  one  being  the  P.  monilifera.     The  common 
name  is  derived  from  the  cotton-like  tuft  attached  to  the  seeds,  by 

which  they  arc  borne  to  great  distances  by  the  winds, 
and  the  specific  name  "  monilifera"  signifies  "  neck- 
Lice-bearing,"  from  the  seeds  being  formed  in  a  ser- 
ies of  little  balls,  like  a  string  of  beads.     This  spe- 
147.  Tuft  ami  seed  cics  occcurs  native  throughout  the  Atlantic  States 
of  the  Poplar.    from   N<;w  Eng.]and  to  Nebraska  and  Dakota,  and 

southward  to  Louisiana.  It  is  not  seen  in  Utah,  is  less  frequent  in 
Nevada,  but  occurs  in  California  and  Oregon. 

1163.  It  is  extremely  easy  to  cultivate  in  soils  that  are  not  to  arid, 
and  may  be  propagated  from  the  seed,  from  cuttings,  layers,  or  grafts. 
The  most  convenient  way  is  perhaps  from  cuttings,  but  the  best  is 


The  Cottonw  -ods.  287 

from  the  young  plants  that  spring  up  along  the  sand-bars  of  rivers. 
These  natural  nurseries  are  annually  renewed  by  the  seeds  floated 
down  by  the  streams,  and  furnisb,  practically,  an  inexhaustible  sup- 
ply. In  pulling  out  the  young  cottonwoods  from  the  gaud-bars  in 
autumn,  by  selecting,  a  place  but  little  above  the  level  of  the 
water,  they  will  come  out  very  easily,  and  more  than  a  thousand 
may  be  pulled  up  in  half  an  hour,  with  the  fibers  of  the  roots  en- 
tire. 

1 1 G4.  When  these  are  heeled  in  during  the  winter,  and  plowed 
in  early  in  the  spring,  they  take  a  vigorous  growth,  and  are  scarcely 
checked  by  the  operation.  In  setting  these  young  seedlings,  they 
will  be  sure  to  take  an  upward  growth,  at  any  angle  they  may  hap- 
pen to  be  placed.  They  generally  begin  with  a  new  bud  near  the 
base  of  the  stock,  and  the  part  above  soon  perishes. 

1165.  A  principal  reason  for  collecting  the  seedlings  of  cotton- 
woods  from  river  sand-bars  in  autumn  is,  that  the  bottofn-lands  are 
usually  flowed  in  spring  at  the  time  when  the  young  trees  are  needed. 
An  ea^y  method  of  securing  an  abundant  supply  of  plants,  is  to 
plow  in  the  branches  covered  with  the  seed,  or  by  gathering  the  fertile 
catkins  when  ripe,  rubbing  them  apart,  and  sowing  on  mellow,  moist 
soil,  lightly  covering  the  seeds  with  earth. 

11G6.  The  Iowa  Forestry  Annual  of  1879  recommends  for  cot- 
tonwood  cuttings,  pieces  two  or  three  feet  long  and  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  diameter,  sawn  into  uniform  lengths,  and  the  lower  end 
cut  in  a  slope  on  one  side  with  a  very  sharp  axe.  It  advises  that 
poplars  and  willows  should  be  set  deeply  and  firmly  in  the  fall,  and 
as  soon  as  may  be  after  they  are  cut. 

1167.  As  many  as  3,000  cottonwoods  maybe  planted  in  a  day, 
by  two  men,  a  boy,  and  a  team.     The  ground  may  be  cultivated  as 
for  corn,  for  two  or  three  years,  or  until  the  ground  is  well-shaded, 
when  they  will  need  no  further  care  beyond  protection  from  cattle 
and  from  fires. 

1168.  In  deep,  rich  soils  the  cotton  wood  may  sometimes  do  better 
at  eight  feet  apart  than  when  set  at  half  this  distance  at  first.     This 
subject  not  only  in  this  species,  but  in  all  others,  should  be  an  ob- 
ject of  careful  observation  by  the  planter,  and  the  conditions  best 
suited  to  the  locality  can  never  be  fully  determined  excepting  by 
trial. 

1169.  A  variety  known  in  the  Missouri  Valley  as   "yellow  cot- 


288  The  Cottonwoods :   Ti,.e  AUanthus. 

ton  wood,"  appears  to  belong  to  this  species,  and  the  superior  quali- 
ties claimed  for  it  appear  to  be  due  to  the  soil  and  to  the  density  of  its 
growth.  Isolated  trees  are  generally  more  thrifty,  and  therefore 
have  more  sap-wood,  and  are  more  difficult  to  split.  When  grown 
in  the  interior  of  a  grove  they  are  often  less  tough,  and  the  quality 
of  the  wood  is  generally  more  dense  and  durable. 

1170.  COTTOXWOOD  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  (Populus  trichocarpa). 
This  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  30  to  50  feet  from  San  Diego  north- 
ward.    In  Washington  Territory  it  is  found  from   60  to   100  feet 
high,  and  from  2  to  6  feet  in  diameter.     In  British  Columbia  it  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  valleys  of  streams  and  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
throughout  the  whole  Province,  and  north-eastward  in  the  Peace  river 
district.     It  is  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  interior  in  making  their 
canoes. 

1171.  A  variety  (P.  augustifolia)  is  found  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  the  P.  balsamifera  and  P.  monilifera,  with  several  varie- 
ties somewhat  uncertain  as  to  their  classification  are  also  found,  nil 
bearing  the  name  of  "  cotton  wood."     The  Populus  Fremontii  grows 
to  a  large  tree. 

1172.  ANGULAR-STEMMED     COTTONWOOD     (Populus    angulata). 
This  is  one  of  the  cottouwoods  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  its  trib- 
utaries, and  is  distinguished  by  its  angular  stems,  and  the  absence 
of  resinous  and  aromatic  buds.     The  wood  is  soft,  but  of  rapid 
growth.     It  does  not  extend  up  the  Mississippi  river  beyond  Lake 
Pepiu. 

1173.  BALM  OF  GILEAD  POPLAR  (Populus  candicans).     This  is  a 
tree  of  very  rapid  growth,  easily  cultivated,  and  well  adapted  for 
planting  as  a  shade  tree.     Its  leaves  give  out  a  slight  balsamic  odor, 
and  it  has  been  recommended  to  plant  groves  of  this  tree  along  the 
borders  of  marshes,  to  intercept  the  malaria  arising  from  such  local- 
ities.    A  narrow-leaved  variety,  commonly  called  "  cotton  wood  "  or 
"  willow-leaved  poplar,"  occurs  from  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  to 
Washington  Territory  and  Oregon,  being  the  prevalent  species  in 
Nevada  and  Utah. 

THE  AILANTHUS. 

1174.  The  AUanthus  glamlulosa,  or  "  tree  of  heaven,"  is  a  native 
of  China,  but  has  a  wide  range  of  adaptation  to  soils  and  climates, 
enduring  heat  and  drouth  very  well,  and  thriving  upon  soils  where 
many  other  kinds  of  wood  fail.     It  grows  rapidly,  and  is  very  apt 


The  Ailanthus :   The  Madrono, :   The  Manzanita,  etc.  289 

to  send  out  tracing  roots  that  sprout  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  tree. 

1175.  The  male  flowers  have  a  nauseating  odor,  that  render  this 
tree  undesirable  for  cultivation  near  dwellings.     It  grows  very  well 
in  the  shade  of  other  trees,  and  the  spreading  character  of  its  roots 
render  it  useful  in  consolidating  railroad  embankments,  and  for  re- 
boisement  of  mountains.     It  is  grown  from  the  seed,  but  is  most 
easily  propagated  by  planting  sections  of  its  roots,  one  end  being 
exposed  to  the  air. 

THE  ARBUTUS,  OR  MADRONA,  of  the  Pacific  Coast  (Arbutus  Men- 

ziesii). 

1176.  This  occurs  upon  Vancouver  and  the  neighboring  islands, 
but  always  near  the  coast.     It  is  a  handsome  evergreen,  yielding  a 
closely-grained  and  heavy  wood,  much  like  the  box,  and  grows  to 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  to  the  height  of 
fifty  feet.     It  extends  southward  to  Mexico  and  Texas,  and,  under 
favorable  conditions,  grows  to  eighty  and  a  hundred  feet  in  height, 
and  to  a  diameter  of  from  one  to  three  feet. 

THE  MANZANITA. 

1177.  This  is  the  Arctostaphylos  glauca,  of  Lindley,  and  the  Xero- 
lotrys  glama  of  Nuttall.    It  belongs  to  the  heather  family  (Ericacece), 
and  is  a  large  evergreen  spreading  shrub,  with  a  red  exfoliating 
bark  and  pinkish  white  flowers  in  a  terminal  racime.     It  abounds 
in  California  and  Oregon — has  great    powers  of   endurance    in 
drouth,  and  it  is  worthy  of  cultivation  for  variety  in  parks  and 
pleasure  grounds.     The  wood  is  very  dense,  reddish,  and  hard,  but 
too  small  for  much  use.     There  are  over  a  dozen  species  of  the 
Arctostaphylos,  mostly  humble  shrubs.    The  A.  glabra  grows  to  from 
8  to  24  feet,  and  the  A.  pungens  to  from  3  to  20  feet  in  height. 

THE  PAWPAW  (Asimina  triloba). 

1178.  Some  seven  or  eight  species  of  the  Asimina  are  found  in 
North  America,  mostly  in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States 
and  in  Mexico,  and,  excepting  the  one  above  named,  unimportant 
shrubs.    The  pawpaw  grows  to  some  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height, 
generally  in  thickets,  and  it  is  chiefly  important  for  its  fruit,  which 
in  form  and  flavor  somewhat  resembles  a  bannana. 

19 


290  The  Catalpas. 

SOUTHEEN  CATALPA  (Catalpa  bignonoides*).1 

1179.  This  tree  h  found  native  in  Georgia  and  other  Southern 
States,  but  has  been  widely  cultivated  for  ornament  in  the  Middle 
States  and  in  Europe,  where  the  climate  is  not  too  cold.     It  is 
found  susceptible  to  frost,  and  sometimes,  after  several  years  of 
apparent  success,  it  will  suffer  great  injury,  or  be  wholly  killed  by 
i\  hard  winter  following  a  season  that  favored  a  late  growth. 

1180.  Under  favorable  conditions,  it  grows  with  great  rapidity, 
f.nd  to  a  large  size,  being  fifty  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  from 
c  ighteen  to  twenty  inches  in  diameter.     It  has  large  showy  blos- 
.':  mis,  broad  leaves,  a  silver-gray  bark,  which  is  but  slightly  fur- 
r>wed,   and  a  wide   spreading  top.     The  branches  are   relatively 
fyvv  in  number,  and  the  capsules  long,  cylindrical,  and  pendant. 
The  wood  is  grayish -white,  of  fine  texture,  and  brilliant  when  pol- 
iohed,  much  resembling  that  of  the  butternut,  but  of  less  reddish 
hue  and  of  greater  durability. 

1181.  HARDY  CATALPA  (Catalpa  speciosa).      For   many  years 
there  has  been  cultivated  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  other  Northern  and 
Western  States  a  form  of  catalpa  that  was  long  considered  a  hardy 
variety  of  the  C.  bignonoides.     It  was  found  to  be  not  only  hardy, 
but  very  durable.     Its   habit  was  more  erect,   growing  in  dense 
groves,  with  stems  50  feet  in  height ;  the  bark  was  more  closely  ad- 
herent and  furrowed  vertically,  much  like  that  of  the  white  ash. 
The  flowers  are  larger,  nearly  pure  white,  and  about  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  other  species. 

1182.  It  is  described  by  Dr.  Engelmann  (omitting  the  technical 
description  of  the  flowers)  as  follows: 2  "A  middle-sized  tree,  with 
grayish-brown,  much  cracked  or  furrowed,  at  la-t  slightly  flaky 
bark,  and  light-yellowish  gray  wood ;   leaves  large,  truncated,  or 
more  or  less  cordate  at  base,  slender,  acuminate,  soft,  downy  on  the 
under  side,  inodorous.     .     .     .     Common  in  the  low,  rich,  some- 
times overflowed  woodlands  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  along  the 
lower  course  of  that  river  and  its  confluence,  and  in  the  adjoining 
lowlands  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the  States  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ken- 

1  Thus  named  by  Walther.     It  is  named  C.  cordifolia  by  Elliott;    C.  syr- 
ini/aefolia  by  Sims,  and  Bignonia  catalpa  by  Michaux. 
^Botanical  Gazette,  V.  No.  1,  January,  1880. 


The  Catalpas:  The  Mountain  Mahogany.  291 

tucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas.  According  to  Michaux, 
abounding  near  the  borders  of  all  the  rivers  which  empty  into  the 
Mississippi  further  south.  Whether  the  localities  cited  by  him  in 
West  Florida  produce  this  or  the  eastern  species  is  unknown. 
Flowers  in  May." 

1183.  The  specific  name  above  adopted  was  given  by  Dr.  John 
A.  Warder,  through  whose  writings,  and  those  of  the  late  E.  E. 
Barney,  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  others,  the  excellence  of  the  tree  for 
prairie-planting  and   profitable  timber-growth   have   been  chiefly 
made  known. 

1184.  The  wood  cf  this  catalpa  is  light,  yet  strong  enough  for 
most  purposes  cf  construction.     It  has  been  used  to  advantage  in 
bridge-timbers,  where  exposed  to  the  weather ;  it  is  a  favorite  ma- 
terial for  fences,  is  easily  worked,  and  durable  as  shingles,  and  is 
found  serviceable  as  railroad  ties. 

1185.  This  tree  prefers  low  rich  bottom  lands,  but  is  found  to 
thrive  upon  a  great  variety  cf  soils.     It  has  been  planted  with  much 
success   upon  the  bluff-formation  cf  Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
Nebraska.     It  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings  and  layers,  but 
to  best  advantage  from  the  seed.     These  should  be  started  in  seed- 
beds, and  be  transplanted  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring  of  the  fol- 
lowing year.     In  sowing,  the  seed  should  be  covered  a  quarter  or  a 
half  of  an  inch  deep  with  fine  soil,  and  they  should  be  well  culti- 
vated and  kept  clear  of  weeds  until  they  shade  the  ground.     The 
practice  has  been  adopted,  to  some  extent,  of  cutting  back  the 
growth  of  the  first  year  or  two,  so  as  is  secure  a  strong,  vigorous 
sprout  from  the  roots  after  they  have  become  well  established. 

MOUNTAIN  MAHOGANY  (Genus  Cercocarpus  ledlfolius). 

1186.  This  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  seldom  growing  more  than 
thirty  feet  high  and  a  .foot  in  diameter,  with  an  excessively  hard 
close-grained  wood.     It  grows  in  the  most  arid  and  rocky  places,  not 
usually  in  groves  of  considerable  size,  and  from  its  great  weight  and 
hardness,  it  is  most  expensive  to  procure  and  to  work.     Its  growth 
i*  exceedingly  slow,  and  cultivation  is  quite  out  of  the  question,  with 
any  view  of  profit.     There  are   about  four  other  species  in  the 
United  States  and  Mexico.     They  generally  occur  at  from  6,000  to 
10,000  feet  above  tide. 


202        T/ie  Persimmon;  The  Etionymus :  The,  Holly. 

PERSIMMON  (Diospyros  Virginiana). 

1187.  This  tree,  sometimes  called  the  "date  plum,"  belongs  to 
the  Ebony  family,  and  is  the  only  American  representative  of  the 
Ebenacece.     Several  species  of  this  genus  furnish  the  ebony  of  com- 
merce.    They  grow  chiefly  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  are  distinguished 
for  the  hardness  of  their  wood,  which  is  intensely  black. 

1188.  The  persimmon  grows  to  a  tree  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in 
height,  from  the  southern  part  of  New  England,  westward  to  Iowa, 
and  southward  to  Florida  and  Louisiana.     Its  fruit  is  intensely  as- 
tringent when  green,  but  becomes  palatable  when  frozen.     Some 
Asiatic  species  bear  a  large  edible  fruit,  and  have  been  introduced  in 
California,  with  fair  prospect  of  success. 

1189.  THE  MEXICAN  PERSIMMON  (D.  Texana)  is  a  shrub  from 
10  to  30  feet  in  height,  and  occurs  in  Southern  and  Western  Texas, 
and  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Mexico. 

THE  BURNING-BRUSH  (Genus  Euonymus). 

1190.  Of  this  shrub  there  are  three  species  native  to  the  United 
States.     They  are  sometimes  trailing,  or  climbing  by  rootlets,  and 
are  very  ornamental  in  autumn  when  their  bright  red  fruit  is  ripe. 

The  SPINDLE  TREE  (E.  atropurpureus)  grows  in  dark,  shady  woods, 
the  Atlantic  States,  from  Canada  to  Florida,  and  has  dark  purple 
flowers,  and  a  crimson  fruit.  The  STRAWBERRY  TREE  (E.  Ameri- 
cana) has  about  the  same  range  of  latitude,  and  extends  west  to 
Iowa  and  Nebraska.  The  remaining  species  (E.  augustifolius)  is 
found  in  Georgia. 

THE  HOLLY  FAMILY  (Natural  Order  llicineci). 

1191.  This  includes  but  three  genera,  of  which  the  Ilex  is  the  only 
one  that  claims  our  notice.     It  embraces  about  145  species,  mostly 
South  American  end  tropical;  some  of  them  are,  however,  widely 
scattered  through  the  temperate  zones.     They  are  rare  in  Africa  and 
Australia,  and  a  dozen  or  so  are  natives  of  the  United  States. 

1192.  THE  COMMON  HOLLY  {Ilex  opaca)  is  an  evergreen  tree, 
found  growing  in  the  Atlantic  States,  from  Eastern  Massachusetts 
southward,  reaching  its  greatest  development  in  the  Southern  States. 
In  West  Virginia  it  is  found  along  mountain  streams  and  gravelly 


The  Holly  Family :   The  Laurels.  293 

and  stony  soil,  fifteen  feet  in  height.     In  North  Carolina  it  grows  to 
thirty  and  forty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  twelve  to  fifteen  inches. 

1193.  It  is  finely  adapted  for  planting  in  avenues,  and  the  wood 
is  remarkably  white  and  fine-grained,  and  is  much  used  for  inlaying, 
turning,  and  the  finer  grades  cf  cabinet-work.     Bird-lime  is  pre- 
pared from  the  middle-bark  of  the  holly,  and  its  leaves  and  bark 
are  reputed  to  possess  medicinal  properties.     It  much  resembles  the 
European  holly  (Ilex  aquifoliuni) , 

1194.  THE  DAHOON  (Ilex  Dahoori)  is  a  small  southern  tree,  found 
growing  on  the  borders  of  pine-barren  ponds  and  swamps  in  the  coast 
region  of  North  Carolina  and   further  southward.     It  sometimes 
grows  to  twenty-five  feet  in  height. 

1195.  THE  YAUPON  (Ilex  Cassine),  or  "  emetic  holly,"  is  a  shrub 
growing  in  the  coast-region  of  the  Southern  States,  sometimes  reach- 
ing twenty  feet  or  more  in  height,  but  generally  less.     Its  leaves  act 
as  a  diuretic,  and  are  used  medicinally.     The  Indians  used  a  cold 
infusion,  that  they  called  "  black-drink,"  at  their  councils,  and  it  is 
said  to  enliven  them  in  the  place  of  opium.     According  to  some  ac- 
counts, however,  this  drink  was  a  compound  one,  prepared  from 
various  roots.1 

1196.  Other  species  of  the  (Ilex  (formerly  described   under  the 
genus  Praios)  occur  as  deciduous  shrubs  in  swamps  throughout  the 
Atlantic  States,  but  they  present  no  interest  for  forest-culture,  or 
practical  use. 

1197.  The  ''Mate"  or  Paraguay  tea  of  South  America,  is  made 
from  a  holly  closely  related  to  the  /.  Casxine.  and  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  some  advantage  may  be  derived  from  its  cultivation  in  the 
Southern  States. 

LAUREL  (Genus  Kalmia). 

1198.  There  are  abont  half  a  dozen  species  of  this  genus,  chiefly 
growing  in  swamps,  or  upon  rocky  hill-side,  with  thick  evergreen 
leaves  and  showy  red  blossoms.   Only  one  of  them  (K.  latifolia)  grows 
to  much  size,  but  this  is  sometimes  found  30  feet  high.     The  wood 
is  very  hard,  close-grained,  and  often  twisted  into  irregular  forms, 
rendering  it  available  for  rustic  furniture,  for  which  it  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed. 

1199.  Another  species   (K.    augustifolia) ,   which   grows   further 

1  Prochcr's  Resources  of  the  Southern  Fields  and  Forests,  p.  431. 


294  The  Stveet-Gum:   The  Magnolias. 

northward,  is  found  in  swamps,  and  is  reputed  to  be  poisonous  to 
sheep,  when  its  leaves  are  eaten.  The  honey  gathered  by  bees  from 
the  laurels  is  also  said  to  be  poisonous.  A  drab-colored  dye  is  got 
from  the  leaves,  using  copperas  as  a  mordant.  The  K.  alauca  of 
California  is  an  humble  shrub. 

THE  SwEET-GuM  (Genus  Liquidambar). 

1200.  Of  this  there  are  two  species;  one  American,  the  other  a 
native  of  Asia-Minor.     The  former  of  these  (L.  styraciflua)  occurs 
widely  distributed   from   New  England   to   Mexico,  and  from  the 
states  bordering  upon  the  Great  Lakes  to  Louisiana  and  Florida.     It 
prefers  a  deep,  fertile  soil,  exposed  to  temporary  inundations,  and 
attains  a  large  size  in  the  Southern  States.     A  tree  is  mentioned  by 
Michaux  as  found  growing  in  a  swamp  near  Augusta,  Ga.,  that  was 
fifteen  feet  and  seven  inches  in  circumference  at  five  feet  from  the 
ground. 

1201.  In  very  warm  climates  a  balsamic  secretion  is  obtained  from 
this  tree.     It  conies  from  Mexico  under  the  name  of  "  copal  in  resin." 
It  has  some  use  in  medicine,  and  is  used  as  a  perfume.     The  wood 
is  compact,  fine-grained,  and  susceptible  of  a  bright  polish.     The 
heart-wood  is  reddish,  and  marked  transversely  with  blackish  belts. 
It  is  use-1  to  some  extent  for  cabinet-wares  and  inside  finishing,  but 
does  not  bear  exposure  to  the  open  air.     It   is  cultivated  in  Eu- 
rope, but  does  not  there  bear  seeds. 

THE  MAGNOLIAS  (Genus  Magnolia). 

1202.  There  are  fourteen  species  of  the  magnolia,  of  which  six" 
occur  in  Japan,  and  eight  are  natives  of  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico.    Our  native   magnolias    chiefly  occur  eastward   of  the  Alle- 
ghenies,  and  prefer  a  mild  climate  and  a  moist  and  fertile  soil. 

1203.  THE  "  CUCUMBER  TREE"  (Magnolia  acuminata).     This  oc- 
curs in  the  states  north   of  the  Ohio  river  in  great  perfection,  and 
grows  to  a  large  size.     It  is  also  found  in  the  western  parts  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania,  in  West  Virginia,  and  the  South-western 
States.     Its  leaves  are  deciduous,  and.  under  cultivation  they  foil 
into  varieties  differing  in  shades  of  color,  forms  of  leaf,  and  tints  of 
flowers. 

1204.  It  prefers  a  deep,  rather  damp  and  argillaceous  soil,  and  a 
climate  rather  moist  and  not  too  cold.     The  seeds  do  best  when 


The  Magnolias.  295 

sown  in  fall,  with  a  covering  of  straw  or  litter  in  the  winter,  and  in 
the  second  cr  third  year  they  may  be  re-set  in  the  nursery.  It  i ; 
hard  to  transplant  this  tree  when  it  gets  of  much  size.  It  should  be 
done  in  spring,  and  without  cutting  back  the  head.  As  it  tends  t> 
put  out  lateral  branches  when  young,  it  should  be  somewhat  crowded 
until  it  gets  to  sufficient  height.  If  trimmed,  it  should  not  be  done 
in  sap-season,  and  the  wounds  should  be  covered  with  some  substance 
that  will  exclude  the  air. 

1205.  The  "  SWAMP  LAUREL,"  or  "BEAVER  TREE"    (Magnolia, 
glauca),  has  large  oval  leaves,  that  remain  en  in  winter,  and  large 
fragrant  and  showy  white  blossoms.     It  is  not  of  much  account  for 
its  wood,  but  is  valued  as  an  ornamental  shrub.     It  occurs  native 
in  swamps  as  far  northward  as  Cape  Ann,  in  Massachusetts,  but 
thrives  best  in  Southern  New  Jersey  and  further  south  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast. 

1206.  The    "LARGE-FLOWERED   MAGNOLIA"   of   the   Southern 
States  (Magnolia  grandiflora)  is  a  magnificent  evergreen  tree,  with 
oval  lanceolate  leaves,  rusty  on  the  under  side.     It  grows  in  the 
low  country  of  the  Southern  States,  and  when  in  blossom  it  is  un- 
questionably the  most  showy  of  American  trees.     The  flowers  are 
very  fragrant. 

1207.  As  cultivated  in  Europe,  this  tree  forms  many  varieties, 
differing  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  leaves,  the  earlier  or  later  ap- 
pearance of  its  blossoms,  their  size,  and  other  peculiarities.     The 
most  esteemed  in  France  are  la  Maillardiere  and  la  Galissoniere. 
When  propagated  from  seed,  they  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe, 
in  a  light  moist  soil,  and  the  young  plants  require  careful  nursing 
when  young.    The  varieties  arc  multiplied  by  grafting  by  approach. 

1208.  The  UMBRELLA  TREE  (Magnolia  umbrella}  grows  in  the  in- 
terior, as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania,  chiefly  in  moist  and  wooded 
valleys,  along  and  near  the  mountains. 

1209.  The  HEART-LEAVED  MAGNOLIA  (Magnolia  cordata)  has  de- 
ciduos  leaves,  which  are  bread,  heart-shaped,  and  slightly  downy 
beneath,  and  flowers  that  are  yellowish  and  faintly  streaked  with 
red.     It  occurs  sparingly  in  the  interior  and  mountainous  portions 
of  the  Southern  States. 

1210.  The  LARGE-LEAVED  MAGNOLIA  (Magnolia  macrophylla)  has 
a  smooth  stem,  with  little  branches,  whitish  bark,  large  deciduous 
leaves,  one  to  three  feet  bng  and  six  to  eight  inches  wide,  and  large 
white  fragrant  flowers  tinged  with  purple. 


296       The  Magnolias :  The  Iron- Wood:  The  Mesquit. 

1211.  The  AURICLE -LEAVED  MAGNOLIA  (Magnolia  auriculata)  has 
also  large  broad  leaves,  eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  with  an  ear- 
shaped  appendage  at  their  base,  deciduous  and  smooth  upon  both 
sides.     It  grows  to  a  height  of  30  to  40  feet  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Southern  States,  and  bears  large  fragrant  white  flowers. 

1212.  The  magnolias  do  not  bear  transplanting  well,  and  can  be 
best  started  in  pots,  carefully  removing  all  the  soil  with  the  roots 
when  it  is  placed  in  the  ground. 

1213.  THE  PRIDE-OF-!NDIA  (Melia  AzedaracJi).     This  is  a  decidu- 
ous tree,  introduced  from  Asia,  but  now  common  as  a  shade  tree 
from  cultivation  in  the  Southern  States.     It  grows  to  forty  or  fifty 
feet  in  height  and  often  three  feet  in  diameter. 

1214.  THE  IRON-WOOD  (Genus  Ostrya.)     Of  this  genus  there  are 
but  two  species,  and  these  are  scarcely  distinct.     One  is  found  in 
the  Old  World  and  one  in  the  New.     Our  iron- wood  (0.  Virgmica*) 
does  not  grow  to  a  large  size,  nor  does  it  occur  in  groves  by  itself, 
but  scattered  here  and  there  among  other  hard  woods.     Its  bark 
is  thin,  brown,  and  rough,  and  its  wood  unusually  solid  and  strong. 
It  is  not  often  cultivated  for  ornament,  but  grows  very  well  when  a 
little  sheltered  by  other  trees. 

1215.  The  iron-wood  of  the  Western  Territory  is  of  a  different 
genus  (Olneya  tesota),  and  is  of  considerable  value  for  its  wood. 

1216.  THE  SORREL-TREE  OR  SOURWOOD  (Oxydendrum  arboreum). 
This  is  a  tree  growing  in  fertile  woods  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  in 
Ohio,  and  along  the  Allegheny  range  southward  into  the  Southern 
States.     It  grows  to  a  hight  of  15  to  40  feet,  and  derives  its  name 
from  its  acid  foliage. 

1217.  MESQUIT  (Prosopis  glandulosa).     This  is  one  of  the  legu- 
minous family  that  thrives  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  territories, 
in  the  hot  dry  valleys,  and  on  the  Mesas.     It  grows  to  a  foot  in  di- 
ameter, and  to  thirty  feet  or  more  in  height.    The  wood  is  hard  and 
durable,  and  the  fruit,  a  kind  of  bean,  is  eaten  by  animals.     In 
Western  Texas,  a  gum  is  collected  from  this  tree  much  resembling 
gum-arabic. 

1218.  THE  SCREW  POD   MESQUIT  (Prosopis  pubescens').     This  is 
smaller  and  less  common  than  the  preceding,  but  of  similar  qualities. 

1219.  THE  BUCKTHORN  (Rhamnus  catharticus').     This  is  a  Eu- 


The  Sumacs.  297 

ropean  shrub  that  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  a  hedge-plant,  and 
when  alone  growing  to  a  small  sized  tree.  About  sixty  species  of 
the  Rhamnus  are  described  by  botanists,  occurring  as  natives  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  They  prefer  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
temperate  zone,  are  rare  in  the  tropics,  and  do  not  occur  in  Austra- 
lia or  the  Pacific  islands.  About  a  dozen  species  occur  within  the 
United  States,  mostly  thorny  shrubs,  some  of  them  with  evergreen 
leaves,  but  not  of  much  account  for  cultivation,  unless,  perhaps,  as 
hedge  plants. 

THE  SUMACS  (Genus  Ehus.} 

1220.  Of  these  there  are  some  120  species,  chiefly  found  in  South 
Africa,  and  the   warmer  parls  of  extra-tropical  countries  in  both 
hemispheres,  a  few  being  found  within  the  tropics.     About  14  spe- 
cies occur  within  the  United  States. 

1221.  THE  STAG-HORN  SUMAC  (Ehus  typhina).     This  is  a  small 
tree  or  more  frequently  a  shrub,  growing  from  Canada  south  ward  to 
South  Carolina  and  Louisiana,  and  westward  to  Iowa.     It  some- 
times is  found  25  feet  high  and  one  foot  in  diameter.     The  wood 
when  freshly  cut  has  a  rich,  glossy,  golden  and  brown   color,  but 
this  fades  when  exposed  to  the  sun.     The  leaves  are  used  for  tanning 
and  dyeing. 

1222.  THE  SMOOTH  SUMAC  (Ehus  glabra).     Phis  occurs  in  about 
the  same  range  as  the  preceding,  but  is  smaller.     The  leaves  con- 
tain more  tannin  than  the  last  named,  and  afford  most  of  the  sumac 
that  comes  to  market  from  Virginia,  as  a  tanning  material. 

1223.  Ehus  lauriana.     A  large  evergreen  and  leafy  shrub,  with 
an  aromatic  odor,  found  in  California  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San 
Diego.     The  pulp  of  the  dry  fruit  is  waxy,  and  the  seeds  are  said 
to  contain  a  pungent  oil. 

1224.  Ehus  integrifolia.      This   is   a   stout-branching   evergreen 
shrub,  5  to  10  feet  high,  occurring  along  cliffs  near  the  sea,  from 
Santa  Barbara  to  San  Diego,  and  also  in  the  interior.     The  bark 
exudes  an  astringent  gum  resin. 

1225.  Several  of  the  sumacs  (Ehus  toxicodendron,  E.  venenata,  E. 
pumila,  E.  diversiloba)  are  poisonous  to  some  persons,  when  handled, 
causing  a  painful  eruption  and  swelling  that  may  continue  several 
days. 

THE  SASSAFRAS  (Sassafras  officinale). 

1226.  This  belongs  to  the  laurel  family,  and  is  widely  distributed 


298  The  Sassafras:   The  Mahogany,  etc. 

from  New  England  to  Iowa,  and  throughout  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States.  In  Massachusetts  it  is  found  thirty  feet  in  height  and  a  foot 
in  diameter.  lu  West  Virginia  it  is  sometimes  seventy  or  eighty 
feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  West  Tennessee  a  speci- 
men has  been  measured  five  feet  across  the  stump  within  the  bark. 
In  Canada  it  is  only  found  westward  of  the  Niagara  river.  The  wood 
is  soft,  brittle,  close-grained,  and  sometimes  used  in  cabinet-work, 
when  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  seasoned,  it  is  durable  as  fence-posts. 

1227.  An  essential,  oil  having  valuable  medicinal  qualities,  is  dis- 
tilled from  the  bark  of  the  roots,  and  the  pith  from  the  young  twigs 
is  mucilaginous  and  medicinal,  being  worth  from  $3  to  $4  a  pound. 
The  roots  also  yield  a  drab-colored  dye,  with  copperas  as  a  mordant, 
and  the  leaves  when  steeped  in  water  afford  an  agreeable  and  healthy 
mucilaginous  drink.     The  roots  of  sassafras  are  very  tenacious  of 
life,  and  will  sprout  and  grow  with  a  remarkable  persistency  until 
wholly  eradicated. 

1228.  THE  BUFFALO  BERRY  (Shepherdia  argentea)  is  a  spiny  shrub, 
growing  5  to  18  feet  high,  and  occurs  east  of  the  Sierras  and  from 
New  Mexico  far  into  the  northern  regions  of  British  America.     It 
has  been  mentioned  as  available  on  account  of  its  fruit,  and  as  a 
hedge  plant  in  the  west. 

1229.  THE  MAHOGANY  (Swietenia  maJwganii) .    This  highly  prized 
wood  for  fine  cabinet-work,  chiefly  comes  from  the  West  Indies, 

Mexico,  and  Central  America, 


state.  Although  an  exogenous 
tree,  the  lines  of  growth,  as  in 
147.  Cross-section  of  Mohogany.  many  other  tropical  species, 

are  seldom  sharply  defined,  as  where  the  growth  has  been  distinctly 

interrupted  by  a  cold  winter. 

1230.  ARROW- WOOD   (Tcssaria  borealis).      This  is   a  branching 
willow-like  shrub  several  feet  high,  growing  on  the  sand-banks  of 
rivers  from  New  Mexico  to  California.     The  Indians  are  said  to  use 
the  wood  for  arrows. 

1231.  THE  CALIFORNIA  LAUREL  (  Umbrellularia  Calif ornica).1  This 

1  By  some  botanists  called  "Oreodaphne  Californica." 


The  California  Launl:   The  Conifers. 


299 


tree,  sometimes  called  the  "  mountain  laurel "  or  "  spice-tree,"  grows 
to  the  height  ef  seventy  feet,  in  favorable  locations,  but  ordinarily 
not  more  than  from  10  to  30  feet.  It  gets  its  finest  development  in 
Oregon,  but  extends  southward  into  Mexico.  The  wood  is  well 
adapted  for  cabinet-work,  and  is  sometimes  highly  ornamental. 


148.  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit  of  the  Umbrfllularia  Callfornica,  of  one-half 

tlie  Niifurul  Si/.e. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE   CONIFERS. 

1232.  The  Coniftne  may  be  undoubtedly  regarded  as  the  most 
important  timber  trees  known  in  commerce,  and  of  the  greatest 
utility  to  man.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  evergreen,  and  are 
widely  scattered  in  both  temperate  zones  and  upon  mountains  within 
the  tropics,  being  the  last  every-where  to  disappear  at  the  timber- 
line.  [g§  107,  108.]  In  Northern  Europe,  in  Siberia,  and  upon 


300  The  Conifers. 

the  western  coast  of  North  America,  they  form  the  principal  and 
often  the  only  trees  over  wide  areas. 

1233.  Their  wood,  under  the  microscope,   shows  an  abundance 
of  bordered  pits  [§  256],  by  which  the  smallest  fragment  may  be 
identified,  even  in  the  fossil  form.     The  sexes  of  the  blossoms  are 
separate,  on  the  same  or  on  different  trees  ;  they  have  no  floral  en- 
velopes, and  their  pollen  is  provided  with  an  arrangement  that  ren- 
ders it  buoyant,  so  as  to  be  carried  unusual  distances  in  the  winds. 
The  ovules  or  young  seeds  have  no  pericarps,  and  are  fertilized  by 
direct  contact  of  the  pollen,  without  either  stigma  or  style,  and  for 
this  reason  they  are  called  gymnosperms.1     The  seeds  contain  several 
cotyledons  [§  132],  instead  of  one,  as  in  endogenous  plants,  or  a 
pair,  as  in  most  of  the  species  noticed  in  the  preceding  pages,  and 
from   this   they   are   also   called  polycotyledonous.     The  number  is 
usually  from  six  to  ten,  and  hence  the  germinating  seed  presents 
leaves  of  corresponding  numbers. 

1234.  The  seeds  of  this  order  are  usually  placed  between  hard, 
woody  scales,  arranged  spirally  and  regularly  around  an  axis,  form- 
ing, until  ripe,  a,  solid  conical  or  ovoid  mass,  and  they  are  in  many 
species  provided  with  a  wing  that  enables  them  to  be  wafted  by  the 
winds,  when  they  are  liberated  by  the  opening  of  the  scales.     The 
structure  of  the  blossoms  and  seeds  of  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  genera  in  this  order  may  be  seen  in  the  annexed  engraving. 

1235.  In  some  cases,  the  cones  that  bear  the  seed  can  scarcely 
be  recognized.     The  scales  become  pulpy  and  the  fruit  berry-like ; 
in  many  species  there  is  no  trace  of  a  wing  to  the  seed,  and  the 
fruit  may  be  solid  and  nut-like.     Sometimes  the  seeds  are  large  and 
edible.     In  the  structure  of  the  cone,  and  otherwise,  the  coniferse 
present  analogies  to  the  higher  lycopods  or  club-mosses,  and  to  the 
vegetation  that  prevailed  in  the  carboniferous  period,  the  remains 
of  which  form  the  bulk  of  our  mineral  coal. 

1236.  In  most  of  the  conifers  we  find  resiuiferous  cells  in  the 
wood  of  the  trunk,  branches,  and  roots,  the  bark,  and  sometimes,  as 
in  the  pines,  in  the  leaves.    [§  793.]    The  leaves  in  transverse  sec- 
tions present  a  cellular  structure,  very  uniform  in  the  different  spe- 
cies, and  affording  characters  upon  which  a  classification  has  been 
based.     We  see  an  example  of  this  in  Fig.  20  of  the  accompanying 
engraving. 

*A  term  from  tho  Greek,  signifying  "  miked  seeds." 


The  Conifers. 


aoi 


149.  Pinus  sylvestris :  Scotch  Pine.— 1.  A  twig  with  a  defected  pistilate  flower.  2.  An  older  twig, 
bearing  a  cluster  of  oval  staminate  flowers.  3.  The  former  enlarged,  ns  it  flpproaches 
the  period  of  maturity.  4.  The  same  after  the  scales  have  opened  to  allow  the  seeds  to 
escape.  5.  The  pistilate  blossom,  somewhat  enlarged.  6,7.8  Scales.  9.  The  inside  of 
a  scale,  with  the  seeds  in  place  10  Back  view  of  a  thickened  scale.  11.  12.  The  seed, 
with  its  wing,  natural  size,  and  enlarged  i:>.  Staminate  flowers,  somewhat  enlarged. 
14,15.  Stamens.  16,17.  Pollen-grains  inflated  18.  A  seedling,  showing  five  seed-leaves. 
39.  Leaves  in  pairs.  20.  Transverse  section  of  a  leaf,  showing  the  structure  of  cells, 
some  of  them  being  resiniferous  canals. 


302  The  Conifers. 

1237.  Although  the  conifers  thrive  in  a  great  variety  of  soils  and 
situations,  it  may  be  said  that  no  soil  which  is  compact,  clayey,  and 
underlaid  by  an  impervious  sub-soil,  preventing  it  from  drainage,  is 
suited  to  them.     But  a  few  will  grow  in  the  mud,  but  with  these 
exceptions  almost  every  other  kind  of  soil  agrees  with  one  or  another, 
and  especially  those  where  the  calcareous  or  the  silecious  element 
predominates. 

1238.  When  young,   nearly  every  species  delights  in  a  sandy 
loam,  although  when  more  advanced  they  may  sometimes  require  a 
more  substantial  kind.     The  seeds  should  be  sown  early,  and  be 
covered  thin.     A  mixture  of  about  one-third  sand  and  two-thirds 
mold  is  generally  suitable  for  the  seed-bed.     Many  kinds  do  very 
well  in  a  dry  soil,  but  they  need  more  humidity  in  the  early  years, 
which  is  secured  in  the  natural  forests  under  the  shelter  of  the  par- 
ent trees.     It  is  more  effectual,  if  accompanied  by  a  high  tempera- 
ture.    All  of  these  conditions  are  best  managed  in  seed-beds  and 
nurseries,  and  hence  the  advantages  generally  of  starting  conifers 
in  nurseries  first  and  of  transplanting  them  while  small.     Of  all 
trees  the  conifers  suffer  most  and  soonest  from  the  exposure  of  their 
roots  to  the  air,  and  the  greatest  possible  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  them  from  drying. 

1239.  Among  the  conifers  there  are  many  ornamental  species  and 
varieties  that  can  be  multiplied  and  perpetuated  by  grafting  and  by 
cuttings.     These  are  delicate  operations,  and  require  special  skill 
and  convenient  arrangements,  found  only  among  professional  nur- 
serymen.    We  can  only  here  state  some  of  the  principal  points  con- 
cerning them.1     Cuttings  may  be  taken  from  the  trees  in  spring, 
before  vegetation  has  started,  or  in  fall,  after  the  growth  of  the  year 
has  formed.     They  are  set  in  little  pots,  filled  with  light  sandy  soil, 
or  in  little  beds,  under  glass,  in  a  multiplying  bed,  where  the  tem- 
perature is  regulated,  and  they  are  properly  sprinkled. 

1240.  For  grafting,  the  terminal  shoot  is  taken  as  a  scion,  and  if 
the  hardened  wrood  is  used,  the  best  time  for  grafting  is  in  autumn. 
By  a  delicate,  but  generally  certain  process,  the  shoots,  while  still 
herbaceous,  may  be  grafted  in  the  growing  season,  in  the  month  of 
May.     In  grafting  conifers,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  stock  be  as 

*A  detailed  description  of  these   methods  is  given  in  Forestry  Report, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  75  to  80. 


The  Conifers.  805 

nearly  related  to  the  scion  as  may  be ;  as,  for  example,  pines  should 
both  be  two-leaved,  three-leaved,  or  five-leaved,  and  some,  like  the 
white  pine,  are  very  difficult  to  graft  at  all.  We  can  not  take  dif- 
ferent genera  of  conifers,  nor  these  of  the  same  genus  and  subdi- 
vision, unless  of  equally  vigorous  growth. 

1241.  For  reasons  already  stated  [§299],  we  can  not  cultivate 
the   conifers   of    the   Pacific   Coast   in   the   Atlantic   States   with 
success.     Those  from  the  mountains  can  be  removed  with  much 
better  chances  of  their  living,  but  to  do  this  with  certainty  the 
greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  roots  from  the  air,  and  to 
bring  an  abundance  of  the  soil  with  them. 

1242.  After  excavating  around  the  tree,  so  as  to  include  as  many 
of  the  small  roots  as  possible,  and  without  disturbing  them,  a  sheet 
of  coarse  canvas  should  be  passed  under  the  roots  and  bound  firmly 
around  them.     The  trees  should  not  be  more  than  three  or  four  feet 
high  ;  they  should  be  selected  from  "open  places,  and  the  more  un- 
disturbed  soil  that  is  taken   with  them   the   greater  will  be  the 
chances  of  their  living.     . 

1243.  In  planting  conifers  in  the  prairie  regions  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  greatest  difficulty  has  been  met  with,  on  account  of  the 
dryuess  of  the  climate,  and  the  great  and  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature that  occur.     Indeed,  very  many  have  failed  altogether; 
perhaps  after  giving  some  promise  of  success  for  a  few  years,  until 
overcome  by  a  dry  season  or  other  adverse  conditions. 

1244.  The  kind  of  all  others  most  likely  to  succeed  in  Iowa  and 
Southwestern  Minnesota,  is  the  native  red  cedar.     According  to  the 
opinion  of  careful  observers  those  that  next  after  this  should  have 
order   of  preference   would   be:   1.  Scotch   pine;  2.  White   pine; 
3.  Austrian  pine ;  and,  4.  Red  pine.  - 

1245.  The  conifers  embrace  about  300  species,  which  are  arranged 
by  Beuthara  and  Hooker1  into  six  families,  based  upon  common  re- 
semblances, as  follows : 

I.  THE  CYPRESS  FAMILY  (Cupressince) ,  including  seven  genera,  of 
which  the  California  white  cedar  (Libocedrus) ,  arbor-vita?  or  common 
white  cedar  (  Thuja),  cypress  (Cupressus} ,  and  junipers  (Juniperus) ,  are 
native  in  the  United  States.  The  remaining  three  occur  in  Asia, 

^-Genera  Plantarum,  iii.,  Part  I.,  p.  420  (1880). 


804  The  Conifers. 

Africa,  Australia,  and  South  America,  but  may  be  cultivated  to  ad- 
vantage in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

II.  THE  BALD-CYPRESS  AND  ALLIED  FAMILY  ( Taxodlece') ,  includ- 
ing the  Japanese  cedar  (Cryptomeria),  bald  cypress  (Taxodinm),  red- 
wood and  giant  tree  (Sequoia),  and  two  other  Australian  and  East- 
ern Asiatic  genera. 

III.  THE  YEW  FAMILY  (Taxed),  including  the  yew  (Taxus],  Cal- 
ifornia nutmeg  (Torrega),  ginkgo  (Salisburia) ,  and  three  other  Aus- 
tralian and  South  American  genera. 

IV.  The  Podocarpece,  of  which  three  genera  occur  in  Asia,  Africa, 
Australia,  and  South  America. 

V.  NORFOLK-ISLAND  PINE  FAMILY  (Araucariece) ,  three  species 
of  which  are  found  in  Eastern  Asia,  China,  Australia,  South  Pa- 
cific Islands,  and  South  America. 

VI.  THE  PINE  AND  FIR  FAMILY  (Abietinece) ,  embracing  the  pines 
(Pinus),   cedar   of  Lebanon'-  (Cedrus),   spruce   (Picca),   Hemlock 
(Tsugcb),  Douglas  fir  (Pseud  otsuc/a) ,  fir  (Abies'),  and  larch  (Larix). 

1246.  In  the  cypress  family  we  have  14  species  of  the  Callitris  or 
Atlas  cedar,  the  stump  and  roots  of  which  afford  the  costly  "  thuja" 
of  cabinet-makers,  and  one  of  the  finest  of  woods.     The  gum-senegal 
of  commerce  comes  from  trees  of  this  genus.     None  of  them  are 
found  in  North  America,  but  are  natives  of  Africa,  Madagascar, 
Australia,  and  New  Caledonia.     Two   other  genera,  Adinostrobus 
and  Fiteroya,  are  also  exotic. 

1247.  THE  CALIFORNIA  WHITE  CEDAR  (Libocedrus  decurrens). 
This  is  sometimes  called  "  incense  cedar,"  and  occurs  widely  distrib- 
uted in  California  and  Oregon,  chiefly  upon  the  mountains  of  the 
interior,  where  it  sometimes  grows  to  six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter, 
at  a  yard  from  the  ground,  and  to  a  height  of  100  to  150  feet. 
There  are  about  8  species  known,  but  this  is  the  only  one  within  our 
limits.     In  general  habit  and  quality  of  wood,  it  much  resembles  the 
common  white  cedar  of  the  Atlantic  States  (Thuja  occidentalis) ,  and 
it  thrives  very  well  in  the  east,  where  it  forms  a  fine  ornamental 
evergreen. 

THE  ARBOR- VIT^ES  OR  WHITE  CEDARS  (Genus  Thuja'). 

1248.  These  as  now  arranged  by  the  authors  above  cited,  embrace 
under  this  genus  a  dozen  species,  of  which  five  occur  within  the  United 
States.     The  cones  consist  of  scales,  from  eight  to  twelve  in  number, 
which  have  a  pair  of  ovules  at  the  base  of  each.     The  seeds  ripen 


The  White  Cedars.  305 

the  first  year,  and  when  ripe  the  scales  become  strongly  reflexed. 
In  the  Atlantic  States  and  Canada,  we  find  two  species,  viz.: 

1249.  THE  ARBOK-\TIT^  (Thuja  occidentalis}  is  found  in  swamps, 
and  upon  rocky  bluffs,  throughout  the  inland  portions  of  the  North- 
ern and  Northwestern  States,  extending  far  northward  in  British 
America,  but  not  into  the  Southern  States.     The  wood  is  soft  and 
easily  split,  has  an  agreeable  balsamic  cdor,  and  is  very  durable.    It 
is  made  into  shingles,  pails,  churns,  buckets,  and  other  hollow-ware, 
is  durable,  and  much  prized  for  fence-posts,  and  is  largely  used 
for  telegraph-poles,  and  in  late  years  for  railroad  ties.     It  grows  well 
under  cultivation,  and  makes  one  of  the  most  excellent  of  screens 
and  wind-breaks.     Nothing  would  prove  more  effectual  than  this 
for  preventing  drifting  snows,  in  exposed  places  along  the  public 
roads. 

1250.  It  is  best  propagated  from  seeds  in   nurseries,   and  then 
transplanted  in  spring.     It  should  have  some  shelter  on  the  south 
side,  as  every  one  must  have  noticed,  \\  ho  has  attempted  to  plant  on 
both  sides  of  a  board  fence  running  east  and  west.     It  would  be 
well  to  provide  a  row  of  some  other  trees  for  this  use,  two  or  three 
years  before  the  cedar  is  set,  and  take   it  away  when  no  longer 
needed.     This  tree  when  cut  back  will  thicken  up  very  well  at  the 
bottom.     When  set  it  should  be  well  watered,  and  if  followed  by 
a  dry  summer,  the  watering  should  be  repeated  till  the  plants  get 
well  rooted. 

1251.  This  cedar  will  endure  burying  in  the  sand  to  a  remark- 
able degree.     In  one  instance  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  one 
of  these  trees  had  been  gradually  buried  to  a  great  depth,  and  after- 
wards left  bare  by  the  drifting  away  of  the  sands.     It  was  found  that 
roots  had  been  successfully  put  out  from  the  trunk,  to  the  height 
of  more  than  thirty  feet.     This  quality  renders  it  valuable  in  fixing 
drifting  sands,  wherever  it  can  be  made  to  grow. 

1252.  THE    "  WHITE    CEDAR"    (Thuja    sphaercedalis — formerly 
known  as  "Cypremts  thyoides,"  or  later  " Chamaecyparis  thymdes")  is 
the  common  white  cedar  of  the  Atlantic  Coast.     It  also  occurs,  but 
less  frequently,  in  swamps  along  rivers  in  the  interior.     It  extends 
from  Massachusetts  to  Texas,  and  occurs  abundantly  in  New  Jer- 
sey, growing  in  dense  masses  in  swampy  ground.     In  some  places 
along  the  southern  coast  it  is  called  the  ''juniper."     It  prefers  the 
lowlands  along  rivers  and  the  forest  swamps  of  the  low  pine  barrens, 


306  Buried  White  Cedar. 

and  grows  sometimes  to  70  or  80  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of 
two  feet. 

1253.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  timber  trees  of  the  coun- 
try, the  wood  being  fine-grained,  soft,  light,  and  easily  worked,  with 
a  strong  aromatic  odor.     It  is  used  for  frames  of  buildings,  shingles, 
and  coopers'  wares,  and  its  charcoal  for  gunpowder.     Lamp-black 
of  the  best  quality  is  made  from  its  smoke. 

1254.  "  Enormous  quantities  of  this  wood  are  found  buried  in  salt 
marshes  in  Southern  New  Jersey,  where  no  timber  now  grows.     In 
searching  for  it,  the  marshes  are  probed  with  iron  rods,  and  when  a 
tree  is  found,  its  size,  direction,  and  quality  are  ascertained.     By 
tearing  off  a  piece  of  wood,  it  may  be  known  by  the  odor,  whether 
it  fell  from  age,  or  was"  blown  down  by  the  winds.     If  the  latter,  it 
is  more  valuable,  and  after  cutting  away  the  turf  at  the  top,  the 
wood  is  sawn  off  in  two  places,  when  it  will  rise  and  float,  always 
bottom  upwards,  because  the  lower  side  is  soundest,  and  the  upper 
side  may  have  been  long  exposed  to  the  weather.    The  wood  has  all 
the  buoyancy  of  fresh  cedar,  not  being  in  the  least  water-logged, 
and  the  under  bark  is  still  fresh. 

1255.  "  Occasionally  a  log  will  be  got  out  that  is  thirty  feet  long. 
It  is  generally  shorter,  and  is  worked  up  into  shingles  of  the  very 
best  quality.     Tree  after  tree,  from  200  to  1,000  years  old,  may  be 
found  lying  across  one  another,  some  partly  decayed,  as  if  they  had 
stood  a  long  period  after  they  were  dead.    The  larger  logs  are  some- 
times sawn  into  boards. 

1256.  "  From  $9,000  to  $10,000  worth  of  shingles,  valued  at  $15 
per  M.,  have  been  made  in  a  single  year  from  this  buried  cedar  in 
the  vicinity  of  Denuisville.    The  occurrence  of  this  cedar  on  a  level 
now  below  that  of  the  sea,  is  deemed  conclusive  evidence  of  the  sub- 
sidence of  this  coast ;  but  this  timber  must  have  grown  many  thou- 
sand of  years  ago,  and  must  have  been  growing  for  a  long  period  to 
accumulate  so  great  a  quantity." * 

1257.  THE  GIANT  ARBOR- VIT^E  (Thuja  gigantea)  is  by  far  the 
finest  of  the  cedars,  and  grows  to  a  size  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of 
the  Douglas  fir  and  the  sugar-pine.     The  branches  are  drooping 
and  the  tree  more  symmetrical  than  the  common  white  cedar,  and 
the  wood  is  white  and  easily  worked.     It  grows  to  great  perfection 

^Forestry  Report,  1877,  p.  459,  and  authorities  there  cited. 


Western  Cedars:  Cypresses.  307 

in  Oregon,  Washington  Territory,  and  northward  to  Alaska,  being 
especially  well  developed  upon  the  Coast  and  Cascade  Ranges,  where 
it  grows  from  100  to  250  feet  high,  and  from  3  to  12  feet  in  diam- 
eter. When  free  to  develop  itself,  it  takes  a  narrow  pyramidal 
form,  with  somewhat  drooping  branches  and  a  light  green  foliage. 
It  is  not  common  in  California,  but  is  found  as  far  south  as  San 
Diego. 

1258.  In  British  Columbia,  this  is  called  the  "  yellow  cypress"  or 
"  yellow  cedar,"  and  is  limited  to  the  coast  and  islands.     It  often 
exceeds  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  wood  is  strong,  free,  and  of  fine 
grain,  with  a  pale  golden  yellow  tint,  and  a  slight  peculiar  resinous 
smell.     It  is  very  durable,  and  has  been  used  to  some  extent  for 
boat-building  and  for  various  ornamental  uses.     The  giant-cedar  is 
an  important  timber  tree  in  British  America,  and  on  the  coast  it 
often  exceeds  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  height  of  100  to  150 
feet,  but  such  trees  are  invariably  hollow.     The  Indians  use  this 
tree  for  making  their  large  and  elegant  canoes,  and  from  the  fiber 
of  the  inner  bark  they  make  ropes. 

1259.  THE  NOOTKA  CEDAR  (Thuja  excelsa),  heretofore  known  as 
the  "Curpessus  Nuikanus"  is  found  from  Alaska  southward  to  the 
Columbia  river,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  80  to  100  feet,  with  a 
soft  white  and  valuable  wood.     It  is  sometimes  known  as  the  "  Or- 
egon cedar,"  the  "  white  cedar,"  the  "  ginger  pine,"  etc. 

1260.  LAWSON'S  CEDAR  (Thuja  Lawsoniana)  is  a  handsome  tree, 
growing  in  the  Shasta  mountains  and  northward,  in  the  Cascade 
range.     This  species  is  often  cultivated  for  ornament,  and  it  runs 
into  varieties,  which  are  often  very  beautiful. 

THE  CYPRESSES  PROPER.     (Genus  Cupressus.) 

1261.  These  differ  from  Thuja,  in  being  of  stiffer  and  stronger 
growth,  having  larger  cones,  with  thick  scales,  and  ripening  the  sec- 
ond year.    About  a  dozen  species  are  known,  of  which  four  are  found 
in  the  United  States,  chiefly  upon  the  Pacific  Coast. 

1262.  THE  MONTEREY  CYPRESS  (Cupressus  macrocarpa)  grows  in 
a  very  limited  region,  near  Monterey,  and  is  a  tree  40  to  50  feet 
high,  with  a  diameter  of  two  to  four  feet.     It  is  quite  ornamental. 
Three  other  species,  the  C.  Goveniana,  C.  MacnaMana,  and  C.  Arizo- 
nica,  have  been  described,  but  are  of  slight  importance  as  timber 


308  2 he  Junipers:  Red  Cedars. 

trees.     The  first  grows  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet,  and  is  said  to 
be  a  beautiful  tree. 

THE  JUNIPERS.     (Genus  Juniperus.) 

1263.  Of  these  there  are  about  twenty-five  species,  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  temperate  and  cold  cli- 
mates, but  in  the  tropics  only  on  high  mountains.    They  are  mostly 
small  trees,  thick  at  the  base,  as  compared  with  their  height,  and  a 
few  of  them  growing  to  a  large  size.     The  bark  is  generally  thin 
and  fibrous,  and  the  wood  fine  and  compact  (but  not  hard),  durable, 
and  exceedingly  slow  of  growth.     The  outer  layer  of  wood  and  the 
inner  bark  are  resinous.     The  fruit  ripens  the  second  year,  and  is 
commonly  called  a  berry,  which,  in  the  common  juniper,  is  em- 
ployed medicinally.     There  are  some  eight  other  species  of  the 
juniper  in  North  America,  and  most  of  them  occur  within  the 
United  States.     The  principal  of  these  are  as  follows  : 

1264.  THE  RED   CEDAR   (Juniperus   Virgin1' ana).     This   is  the 
largest  and  most  widely  spread  of  the  junipers,  extending  from 
about  latitude  45°  in  Canada,  to  the  Gulf  States,  and  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  mountains  that  border  the  Pacific  States.     Between  the 
Sierras  and  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  it  occurs  at  an  elevation  of 
5,000  to  7,000  feet  above  tide,  and  is  there  a  small  tree,  usually  not 
over  a  dozen  feet  high,  and  of  low,  compact  form,  scattered  over 
the  dry  slopes,  but  nowhere  in  groves  of  much  density. 

1265.  In  Tennessee,  this  tree  occurs  native  to  greatest  perfection 
along  the  out-crop  of  the  "glady  limestone"  forming  an  irregular 
belt,  somewhat  circular  in  outline,  extending  quite  across  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  State.     It  has  there  been  found  three  feet  in  diame- 
ter, near  the  ground,  and  sixty  feet  to  the  branches.     It  is  being 
rapidly  worked  up,  and  in  many  counties,  where  once  abundant, 
it  is  now  exhausted. 

1266.  The  red  cedar  occurs  along  rocky  ravines,  in  the  region 
bordering  upon  the  Great  Plains,  where  it  is  the  principal  conifer 
found  native,  and  the  one  most  capable  of  cultivation  for  ornamental 
and  useful  purposes. 

1267.  It  is  propagated  from  the  seeds,  and  for  planting,  the  ber- 
ries should  be  bruised  and  mixed  with  an  equal  or  greater  bulk  of 
wet  wood  ashes.     In  three  weeks  the  alkali  will  have  cut  the  resin- 
ous gum,  when  the  seeds  can  be  washed  clean  from  the  pulp.     This 


The  Western  Junipers.  309 

should  be  done  in  March.  In  preparing  the  ground  for  seed-beds, 
it  should  be  spaded  to  a  foot  or  more  in  depth,  and  three  or  four 
inches  as  the  surface  should  be  covered  with  a  mixture  of  well 
rotted  leaf-mold  (or  wood  soil)  and  sharp  sand. 

1268.  The  beds  should   be   shaded,  as   is   common  with   ever- 
greens, and  should  be  watered  occasionally  in  the  evening  in  case 
of  drouth.     They  may  be  transplanted  to  nursery  rows  the  second 
spring,  and  three  years  after,  the  alternate  rows  should  be  taken  out. 
Screens  of  this  evergreen  are  generally  to  be  preferred  to  all  others 
for  orchards  and  buildings  i:i  the  Northwestern  and  Western  States. 

1269.  THE  WESTERN    JUNIPER   (Jimiperus  occidentalis) .      This 
species  in  Oregon  grows  to  a  tree  sometimes  three  feet  in  diameter  and 
forty  feet  high,  but  is  more  commonly  a  much  smaller  tree,  and 
often  bushy.     It  much  resembles  the  red  cedar,  but  it  has  larger 
berries,  more  glandular  and  resinous  leaves,  a  loose  reddish  bark, 
and  a  white  wood.     It  grows  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cas- 
cade Mountains  in  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory,  and  varieties 
often  with  exceutric  layers  of  wood  and  scraggy  growth  occur  in 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.     In  Western  Texas  it 
forms  an  important  timber-tree,  but  not  so  large  cr  useful  as  the 
red  cedar. 

1270.  THE  CALIFORNIA  JUNIPER  (Jimiperus  CaUfornica)  is  a  stout 
shrub  or  small  tree,  rarely  30  feet  high,  found  growing  from  San  Fran- 
cisco southward,  chiefly  along  the  Coast  Range  and  the  islands.     A 
variety  of  smaller  size  extends  over  the  southern  parts  of  Utah  into 
Arizona  and  Nevada,  forming  a  small  tree  20  feet  high,  that  fur- 
nishes fire-wood  to  some  extent  in  these  regions. 

1271.  Another  juniper  (the  J.  pachyphlcea)  occurs  as  a  middle- 
sized  tree,  with  a  spreading  rounded  top,  thick  and  much  cracked 
bark,  and  pale  reddish  wood,  is  found  in  the  interior  of  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico.     It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  junipers  now 
regarded  as  Mexican  species  may  be  found  across  our  border,  but 
they  are  of  limited  and  altogether  local  importance. 

1272.  THE  SAVJN  (J.  Sabina)  is  a  prostrate  shrub  found  in  high 
northern  latitudes,  in  both  Europe  and  America,  and  occurs  in  the 
northern  border  of  the  United  States,  and  upon  mountains  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  great  lakes,  and  in  British  Columbia  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast.     It  spreads  in  dense  masses  over  the  rocks  and  sand, 


310 


The  Bald  Cypress,  etc. 


and  it  has  a  red  heart-wood  like  the  red  cedar,  but  is  too  small  for 
any  use. 

THE  BALD-CYPRESS,  RED-WOOD,  AND  ALLIED  FAMILY. 

1273.  These  are  included  in  the  tribe  Taxodiece,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  tiie  arrangement  of  the  scales  of  the  aments,  which  are 
thickened,  woody,  close,  and  spirally  placed.     The  ovules,  instead 
of  being  in  twos,  are  from  two  to  six  on  each  scale.     The  leaves  are 
two-ranked  or  imbricated  and  alternate. 

1274.  THE  JAPANESE  CEDAR  (Crypt  omeria  Japonica)  deserves  no- 
tice in  this  connection  as  an  easily-cultivated  ornamental  tree,  a  na- 
tive of  China  and  Japan,  and  suited  to  the  climate  of  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States. 

1275.  THE  BALD-CYPRESS  (Taxodicwn  distwhum).     This  conifer 
is  deciduous,  and  a  native  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  Atlantic 


150.  Leaves  and  Cones  of  the  Taxodium  distichum. 

coast.  It  also  occurs  in  Southern  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  and 
in  the  States  southward,  preferring  a  rich  swampy  soil,  but  growing 
very  well  on  dryer  laud.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  widens  out  towards 


UA> 

Bald  Cypress:  The  Sequoias.  311 

the  roots,  and  excrescences  called  "cypress-knees"  are  thrown  up 
from  the  root  where  the  growth  is  luxuriant  and  the  soil  damp. 
These  do  not  bear  leaves,  and  often  resemble  bottles.  The  larger 
o:  es  are  conical  and  hollow,  and  are  used  for  bee-hives,  tar-buckets, 
and  other  purposes. 

1276.  The  wood  of  the  bald-cypress  is  reddish,  soft,  and  easily 
split,   but  it  works  smoothly  and  is  very  durable.     It  is  largely 
used  for  shingles,  and  is  a  valuable  material  for  building,  where 
great  solidity  is  not  required.    In  the  swamps  along  the  southern  coast 
this  timber  is  found  buried,  but  still  of  excellent  quality  after  thus 
lying  for  an  unknown  period. 

1277.  This  tree,  when  young,  has  a  regular  pyramidal  form,  but 
when  older,  a  broad  spreading  top.     It  is  easily  cultivated,   and 
much  esteemed  on  account  of  its  delicate  and  elegantly  pinnate 
leaves,  its  slender  spray,  and  bright  green  foliage,  which  becomes 
red  in  autumn.     In  the  Bartram  garden,  near  Philadelphia,  there  is 
a  tree,  planted  by  its  founder,  that  is  130  feet  high  and  beautifully 
proportioned. 

1278.  There  are  three  grades  of  lumber  from  this  tree  known  in 
the  timber  trade — the  red,  black,  and  white  cypress,  differing  in  the 
color  of  the  heart-wood.     The  red  is  most  valued,  is  less  liable  to 
split,  and  grows  with  a  straight  trunk,  swollen  at  the  base,  the  • 
top  is  small,  and  the  wounded  bark  reddish.    The  others  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  it  until  cut.     There  are  two  other  species  of 
this  genus,  one  in  Mexico,  and  besides  these  others  now  found  only 
in  fossil  remains. 

1279.  The  bald-cypress,  besides  being  exported  in  large  quantities 
as  planks  and  shingles,  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  doors, 
window-sashes,  and  other  building   purposes.     It  scarcely  has  an 
equal  in  durability  when  set  as  posts. 

THE  SEQUOIAS.1 

1280.  There  are  but  two  living  species  of  this  genus — the  S.  gi- 

1  Sequoia,  known  by  the  English  name  of  George  Guess,  was  a  quarter- 
breed  Cherokee  Indian,  wholly  illiterate,  and  without  any  knowledge  of  the 
English  or  of  the  sound  of  any  letter  in  written  language.  Having  heard 
of  writing,  he  applied  himself  to  the  construction 'of  a  syllabic  alphabet, 
which,  when  once  construed,  became  in  a  short  time  in  common  use  among 
his  people,  and  so  simple  that  it  could  be  learned  in  a  day.  It  consisted  of 
86  characters,  each  representing  one  syllable.  Sequoia  was  forced  to  emi- 


312 


The  Red- Wood. 


gantea,  or  giant-tree  of  California,  and  the  8.  sempervirens,  or  red- 
wood. The  former 
grow  in  limited  quan- 
tities, in  groves 
known  as  those  of 
Calaveras,  Tuolum- 
ne, Merced ,  and  Mar- 
iposa.  In  Fresno 
county,  Cal.,  there 
have  been  found  oth- 
ers in  recent  years, 
in  one  place  scatter- 
ed over  a  region  forty 
miles  in  length  by 
six  or  eight  in  width, 
and  the  tree  is  now 
raised  from  seed  in 
various  parts  of  the 
world.  It  has  been 
tried  many  times  in 
the  Atlantic  States, 
but  from  differences 
of  climate  it  has  al- 
most uniformly  fail- 
ed, perhaps  after  a 
few  years  of  appar- 
ent success.  In  Eng- 
land, it  has  been 
found  to  do  best  in 
a  heavy  clay  soil, 
a  damp  climate,  a 
moist  sub-soil,  but 
prefers  high  lands 
to  low,  and  is  likely 


151.  Leaves,  ("one,  and  Seeds  of  the  Sequoia  giqantea. 


to  be  injured  by  severe  frosts  and  by  east  winds. 

grate  with  his  tribe  to  b'eyond  the  Mississippi,  and  died  in  New  Mexico  in 
1845.  One  of  his  grandfathers  was  a  white  man,  but  in  appearance  and 
habits  he  was  wholly  Indian.  The  name  was  applied  by  Endlicher,  and  has 
preference  over  "  Welling tonia"  as  used  by  some  English  botanists. 


The  Giant  Trees  of  California. 


313 


1281.  la  its  native  region,  it  is  considerably  elevated  above  the 
sea  level,  and  in  summer  it  is  warm  and  dry,  with  scarcely  any  rain. 
In  winter  the  snows  fall  six  feet  or  more  in  depth,  and  remain  on 
till  May. 

1282.  The  "  big  trees"  range  from  250  to  360  feet  in  height,  and 
from  40  to  64  feet  in  circumference.     The  bark  is  reddish-brown, 
and  about  two  feet  thick,  and  the  wood  soft,  and  much  like  that  of 
the  common  white  cedar  in  quality. 


152.  Sequoia  sempervirens:    Leaves,  Cone,  and  Male  Flowers  of  the 

natural   size.    Both  forms  of  the  leaves  are  shown  in  this 
engraving. 

1283.  The  red-wood,  although  second  in  size,  is  first  in  value,  be- 
cause more  abundant  and  of  exceedingly  fine  quality  for  joinery  and 
all  other  uses  for  which  the  pine  is  commonly  employed.  The  wood 
is  not  strong,  but  is  durable,  and  has  a  reddish  tint  like  red  cedar ; 


314  The  Red-  Wood:  rlhe  Jews. 

but  this  fades  when  exposed  to  light.  It  grows  to  ten  and  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  in  extreme  cases  it  has  been  seen  over  twenty 
feet  in  diameter  and  three  hundred  feet  high.  The  range  of  this 
tree  is  limited  to  the  western  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  upon 
the  metamorphic  sandstones,  which  seem  to  be  almost  as  essential  to 
their  welfare  as  the  ocean  fogs. 

1284.  The  scene  presented  by  a  red-wood  forest  is  one  of  the  most 
impressive  kind.     "Let  one  imagine  an  entire  forest,  extending  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  the  trees  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in 
diameter  and  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet  in  heijht, 
thickly  grouped,  their  trunks  marvelously  straight,  not  branching 
till  they  reach  a  hundred  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  then 
forming  a  dense  canopy  that  shuts  out  the  view  of  the  sky;  the 
contrast  of  the  bright  cinnamon-colored  trunks  with  the  somber, 
deep,  yet  brilliant  green  of  the  boughs ;  the  utter  silence  of  these  for- 
ests, where  often  no  sound  can  be  heard  except  the  low  thunder  of 
the  distant  ocean," x  and  one  finds  a  combination  of  the  sublime  and 
the  beautiful  that  woodland  saenery  nowhere  else  presents. 

1285.  This  tree  never  extends  far  inland,  nor  beyond  the  fogs 
and  rains  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  it  scarcely  reaches  the  line  of 
Oregon  on  the  north.     The  red-wood  has  the  property  not  common 
among  the  conifers,  of  sprouting  from  the  stump,  and  its  specific 
name  is  derived  from  this  tenacity  to  life  that  it  shows  when  cut. 

THE  YEW  FAMILY  (Taxacece). 

1286.  This  differs  greatly  from    the  other  conifers  in  its  fruit, 
which  is  reduced  to  a  single  ovule,  which,  when  ripe,  is  a  hard 
seed  surrounded  by  a  pulpy  covering.     The  leaves  are  linear,  flat, 
arranged  in  two  rows,  and   the   blossoms  are   dioecious,   solitary, 
and  axillary.      There  are  but   two  native  genera  to  be  noticed  in 
this  family. 

1287.  THE  AMERICAN  YEW  (Taxus  Canadensis)   is   a  prostrate 
spreading  shrub,  common  throughout  the  Northern  States,  and  often 
known  as  "  ground  hemlock."     It  is  of  no  account  for  its  wood,  but 
might  be  made  ornamental  in  covering  rock  in  parks  and  other 
places. 

1288.  THE  WESTERN  YEW  (Taxus  brevi/olia).     This  is  an  upright 

1  Whitney's  Yosemite  Book,  p.  106. 


.   The  Torreyas :   The  Ginkgo. 


315 


tree,  growing  to  the  height  of  from  50  to  80  feet,  with  a  thin  and 
rather  light  yellowish  green  foliage,  much  resembling  the  common 
yew  of  the  Atlantic  States  in  its  blossom  and  fruit,  but  with 
shorter  leaves,  and  an  upright  habit.  This  tree  occurs  on  Van- 
couver's Island  and  the  main  shore  opposite,  in  British  Columbia, 
sometimes  reaching  a  diameter  of  two  feet.  It  is  found  southward 
across  the  whole  Pacific  coast,  to  or  near  the  Mexican  line.  The 
wood  of  this  tree  is  very  tough,  hard,  and  of  beautiful  rose  color, 
and  is  used  for  various  ornamental  purposes.  It  was  formerly  used 
by  the  Indians  in  making  bows,  spear-handles,  fish-hooks,  etc. 

1289.  THE  EUROPEAN  YEW  (Taxusbaccata).     This  is  readily  cul- 
tivated for  ornament,  and  there  are  many  varieties.     The  "  Irish 
juniper,"  one  or  these,  has  a  tall,  narrow  growth.     Other  varieties 
form  excellent  screens  in  ornamental  planting. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  NUTMEG  TREE  (Torreija  California}. 

1290.  This  is  a  rare  tree,  growing  along  the  Coast  Range  and  the 
Sierras,  to  the  height 

of  from  50  to  75  feet, 
and  cjosely  r  c  s  e  m  - 
bling  the  yew  in  its 
foliage  and  general 
appearance.  It  de- 
rives its  name  from 
the  fruit,  which  has 
the  texture  and  ap- 

eparauce     of    a     nut-        153.  The  Fruit  and  Leaf  of  the  Turreya  Californica. 

meg,  but  is  strongly  charged  with  turpentine,  and  of  no  available 
use. 

1291.  Another  species,  the  "  stinking  yew"  (T.  taxifolia) ,  occurs 
within  a  narrow  range  in  North-western  Florida,  where  it  is  a  small 
tree  of  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height.     It  derives  its  name 
from  the  foetid  odor  of  the  leaves  when  bruised. 

THE  GINKGO  (Salisburla  adiantifolia). 

1292.  This  remarkable  "  conifer  "  is  introduced  from  China  and 
Japan,  and  is  easily  cultivated.     Although  belonging  to  the  coni- 
fers, its  single  seed  is  imbedded  in  a  pulp;  although  associated  with 
the  evergreens,  it  sheds  its  leaves  promptly  in  autumn,  and  it  has 


316  The  Ginkgo:  The  Pine  Tribe. 

no  resin  in  its  wood,  as  most  of  the  "resinous  species  "  have  with  which 
it  is  classed.  Its  leaves  are  broad  and  wedge-shaped,  usually  two-lobed, 
and  as  unlike  the  usual  form  of  coniferous  leaves  as  can  well  be  im- 
agined. Its  wood  is  soft  and  spongy,  and  its  bark  smooth  and  ash- 
colored.  It  has  borne  fruit  in  the  United  States,  and  in  China  it 
grows  to  enormous  size. 

1293.  It  does  not  thrive  in  a  frosty  climate,  but  will  live  and  bear 
leaves,  without  gaining  i:i  size,  iu  Northern  New  York  and  in  cor- 
responding latitudes.     Near  Philadelphia  trees  have  grown  to  GO 
feet  or  more  in  height.     This  tree  shows  in  its  mode  of  branching 
some  relationship  to  the  spruce,  and  is  most  interesting  from  the 
exceptional  character  of  its  leaves,  and  its  general  habit  of  growth. 
The  remaining  genera  of  the  yew  family  are  all  exotic,  and  will 
not  be  noticed.     The  same  remark  applies  to  the  families  Podocarpece 
and  Araucariece,  which  present  many  interesting  species,  of  great 
value  ia  their  native  countries  for  their  timber,  and  of  interest  with 
us  only  where  they  may  be  used  in  ornamental  planting. 

THE  PINE  FAMILY. 

1294.  The  sixth  and  last  family  of  the  conifers — the  Abietinece — 
includes  seven  genera,  viz.:  Pitius,  the  pines;  Cedrus,  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon ;    Picea,,  the  spruces ;   Tsuya,  the  hemlocks ;  Pseudotsuga, 
the  Douglas  fir;  Abies,  the  firs;  and  Larix,  the  larches.     All  of 
these  but  the  second  are  natives  of  the  United  States,  and  find 
within  our  limits  their  grandest  development.     Their  commercial 
importance  demands  a  special  notice. 

THE  PINES.     (Genus  Pinus.) 

1295.  Botanists  describe  about  seventy  species  of  the  pine,  chiefly 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  of  these  about  twenty-four  belong 
to  the  old  world.    In  the  United  States  we  have  about  thirty  species, 
of  which  a  dozen  occur  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  upon  the  Pacific  Coast.     Some  six- 
teen or  seventeen  are  found  in  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies.     They 
are  divided  into  groups,  depending  upon  the  number  of  leaves  in  a 
common   bundle,  the   form  of  the  seed-scales,  and   other   charac- 
ters. 

1296.  The  pines  bear  their  seeds  in  pairs,  between  the  scales,  of 


The  Pines.  817 

the  cones,  and  usually  ripen  in  the  autumn  of  the  next  year  after 
they  blossom.  Occasionally  the  coneg  remain  closed  for  several 
years,  and  in  these  cases  the  seeds  retain  their  vitality  a  long  time. 
The  leaves  come  out  from  a  sheath,  in  groups  of  two,  three  or  five, 
except  in  one  species,  where  they  are  single.  They  are  linear,  and 
from  one  to  sixteen  inches  in  length,  and  remain  on  two  or  three 
years,  cr  even  longer.  In  transverse  section,  they  show  resin-ducts 
and  air-cells  that  are  symmetrical,  and,  in  a  given  species,  very  con- 
stant in  their  arrangement.  The  seeds  of  the  pines  are  generally 
winged,  and  in  some  species  they  are  large  and  edible.  The  num- 
ber of  cotyledons  varies  from  4  or  5  to  15  or  18,  and  is  nearly  con- 
stant in  a  given  species. 

1297.  In  some  species,  as  in  the  sugar-pine,  and  the  heavy  yellow 
pine  of  the  Pacific  States,  they  grow  to  a  size  surpassed  only  by  the 
Sequoias,  and  sometimes  they  live  to  a  great  age.     A  section  of 
white  pine,  from  Canada,  was  shown  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition 
at  Philadelphia,  that  was  664  years  old,  and  a  plank,  without  waney 
edges,  was  eight  feet  four  inches  wide,  and  nine  inches  thick.     The 
growth  of  the  pines  is  most  rapid  in  early  years,  the  annual  rings 
being  generally  narrower  as  the  trees  approach  maturity. 

1298.  The  sap-wood  does  not  change  to  heart- wood  until  after 
many  years-?— in  some  cases  100  or  over,  and  on  an  average  about 
20  years.     This  sap-wood  is  white,  but  is  generally  perishable, 
especially' when  exposed  to  the  weather.     It  is  owing  to  this  quality, 
that  second-growth  pines  have  a  poor  reputation  for  lumber,  and 
are  actually  worth  but  little,  except  for  the  coarser  uses. 

1299.  Commercially,  the  pines  afford  the  most  important  timber 
of  the  American  markets,  and  immense  quantities  are  used  every 
year  in  building,  fencing,  and  for  exportation.     Our  space  will  not 
admit  of  a  detailed  description  of  all  the  species  found  native  in  the 
country,  which  could  not  be  done  without  involving  technical  de- 
scriptions that  properly  belong  to  special  botanical  works.1 

1300.  The  pines  are  divided  into  two  sections,  viz.:  Strobua  and 
Pinaster.     In  the  first  of  these,  or  the  "  white  pines,"  the  scales  of 
the  cones  are  thin  and  smooth,  and  the  leaves  occur  in  fives.     The 

1  One  of  the  latest  revisions  of  the  Pines  is  given  by  Dr.  George  Enirel- 
mann,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Academy  of  Science  of  St.  Louis,  Vol  IV., 
No.  1.  (1880). 


318  The  Pines. 

species  in  this  section  are  Pinus  strobus,  P.  monticola,  P.  Lambertiana, 
P.  flexili*)  and  P.  deflexa. 

1301.  In  the  section  Pinaster,  the  scales  are  thickened  at  the  apex, 
and  often  bear  a  point  or  hook.     They  embrace  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  species,  which  may  be  enumerated  as  follows — the  num- 
ber of  leaves  in  a  group  being  prefixed  to  each  : 

3  to  5.  Pinus  Parryana  —  Parry's  Pine. 
3.       "      edulis— Pifion  or  Nut  Pine. 

1  or  2.       "      monophylla- — One  leaved  Pine. 

5.       "      Balfouriana — Balfour's  Pine. 

var.  aristata — bristled  var. 

2.  "      resinosa — Red  or  Norway  Pine. 
5.       "       Torreyana — Torrey's  Pine. 

5.       "      Arizonica — Arizona  Pine. 

3.  "      ponderosa — Western  Yellow  Pine. 
"  "        var.  Jeffreyi. 

"  "        var.  scopulorum. 

3.       "  Chihuahuana. 

2.  "  contorta — Twisted-branch  Pine. 
"  "      var.  Miirrayana. 

3.  "      Sabiniana—  Hard-nut  Pine,  or  Digger-Pine. 
3.       "       Coulteri— Coulter's  Pine. 

3.       "      insignis — Monterey  Pine. 

3.       "      tuberculata. 

3.       "      tasda— Old-field,  or  Loblolly  Pine. 

3.       "      rigida—  Pitch  Pine. 

"     var.  serotina — Pond  Pine. 
2.       "      mops — Spruce,  or  Jersey  Pine. 

"    var.  clausa. 

2.       "      pungens — Prickly  Pine. 
2.       "      muricata. 

2.       "      mitis— Short-leaved  Yellow  Pine. 
2.      "      glabra — Spruce  Pine. 
2.       "      Banhiana — Gray,  or  Scrub  Pine. 
3  to  5.       "      australis — Long-leaved  Pine. 

2  to  3.      "      fflwttii—"  Old-field,"  or  Elliott's  Pine. 

1302.  THE  WHITE  PINE  (Pinus  strobus).     This  is  the  most  valu- 
able of  all  the  native  pines  of  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  one  that 


The  Pines. 


319 


has  furnished  by  far  the  greatest  amount  of  lumber  and  timber  for 
domestic  use  and  the  foreign  trade.  It  is  sometimes  known  in  Eng- 
land ns  the  "  Wey mouth  Pine,"  and  by  the  French  as  "Pin  du. 
Lord,"  from  Lord  Weymouth,  an  English  nobleman,  whose  name 
is  associated  with  the  early  settlement  of  New  England. 


154.    Pinus  strobus.    The  White  Pine  :  Cone  and  Leaves. 

1303.  The  great  bodies  of  this  timber,  when  lumbering  began, 
were  found  around  the  upper  waters  of  the  rivers  in  Maine,  in 
Northern  New  Hampshire,  in  Northern  and  Southwestern  New 
York,  in  Central  and  Northwestern  Pennsylvania,  in  Central  Michi- 
gan, and  along  both  sides,  but  not  the  northern  part  of  the  lower 
peninsula,  in  the  upper  peninsula  of  that  State,  in  Northern  Wis- 


320  The  Pines. 

cousin  and  in  Eastern  Minnesota.  This  species  extends  along  the 
mountains  into  the  Southern  States,  and  in  Western  North  Carolina 
it  grows  to  from  GO  to  70  feet  in  height,  but  is  not  accessible  to  mar- 
kets, and  is  only  of  local  use.  This,  and  the  red  pine,  in  Canada, 
do  not  extend  much  north  of  a  line  running  from  north  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  at  first  S.  W.  and  then  K.  W.,  passing  a 
little  north  of  Lake  Nipigon,  north  of  Lake  Superior.  South  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  the  pine  has  been  mostly  worked  out  in  Canada, 
and  the  supplies  now  come  from  the  upper  waters  of  the  St.  Maurice 
and  the  rivers  flowing  southward  into  the  Ottawa. 

1304.  The  white  pine  thrives  best  in  a  light  sand,  with  a  clay 
subsoil,  and  it  prefers  plains  and  broad  river  valleys  to  higher  lands. 
It  can  scarcely  be  made  to  grow  upon  a  limestone  soil,  and  has  not 
answered  expectations  in  some  places  abroad.     In  the  plantation  of 
M.  Vilmorin,  at  Barres,  France,  it  was  found  that  "  the  wood  is 
soft,  light  and  worthless,  even  for  firewood.     It  is  of  no  use  but  for 
ornament.     Although  it  grows  well  with  its  own  kind,  it  has  no 
chances  when  planted  with  other  species." 

1305.  According  to  Lorentz  &  Parade,1  it  is  found  to  succeed  in 
France,  excepting  in  the  south,  and  it  has  a  very  rapid  growth  ; 
but  time  had  not  yet  been  allowed  for  it  to  ripen,  and  the  best  qual- 
ity of  wood  had  not  yet  been  produced. 

1306.  WESTERN  WHITE  PINE  (Pinus  monticola).     This  pine  oc- 
curs in  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory,  growing  from  7,000  to 
10,000  feet  above  tide,  and  to  a  height  of  60  to  70  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  three  feet.     It  is  the  western  representative  of  the  com- 
mon white  pine  of  the  Atlantic  States,  which  it  most  resembles  in 
habit  of  growth  and  texture  of  wood,  but  it  is  not  equal  to  it  in 
quality.  In  British  Columbia  this  is  known  as  "  white  pine,"  and  it 
is  common  in   the  interior  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  along   the 
Southern  Coast  Range.     The  Indians  collect  the  seeds  of  this  tree 
for  food. 

1307.  THE  SUGAR  PINE  (Pinus  Lambertiana).     This  is  the  most 
magnificent  of  pines  in  dimension,  and  among  the  choicest  in  the 
quality  of  its  wood.     It  occurs  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Pacific,  and  from  Mexico  to  near  the  Columbia  River,  growing 

1  Culture  des  Bois,  5th  ed.,  p.  158. 


The  Pines. 


321 


to  great/perfection  upon  the  slopes  of  the  Sierras  and  the  transverse 
ranges  that  connect  the  Cascade  and 
Coast  Ranges.  It  does  not  generally 
form  separate  forests,  but  towers  here 
and  there  above  other  and  more  com- 
mon kinds,  with  a  symmetry  and  vigor 
that  has  been  admired  by  all  travelers. 
It  grows  to  300  feet  in  height  and  20 
feet  in  diameter,  although  the  more 
common  sizes  are  200  and  10  feet  re- 
spectively. The  branches  appear  thin 
and  sparse,  as  compared  with  the 
trunk.  The  leaves  are  of  a  dark  blue- 
green.  The  cones  are  from  12  to  18 
inches  long,  and  proportioned  as  in  our 
cut  (p.  322).  The  lumber  much  resem- 
bles the  best  of  white  pine.  The  resin- 
ous exudation  from  partly-burned 
trees  has  a  sweetish  taste,  like  manna,  155.  Scale  nod  Seeds  of  the  Sugar 

.          .  Pine  of  the  natural  size. 

and  from  this  the  tree  derives  its  name. 

1308.  The   lumber  is  a  favorite   material  for  doors,  sash,  and 
blinds,  and  for  finishing-lumber  generally.     The  species  is  named 
from  Aylrner  Bourke  Lambert,  an  English  botanist,  who  died  in 
1842.     He  was  the  author  of  several  works  of  merit,  and  among 
them  one  on  the  pines.     The  last  edition  of  the  latter,  in  three 
volumes,  atlas  folio  (1828-37),  ranks  among  the  most  costly  and 
elaborate  botanical  publications  ever  issued.     His  herbarium,  which 
was  considered  among  the  best  of  its  kind  in  Europe,  he  bequeathed 
to  the  British  Museum. 

1309.  THE  FLEXIBLE  PINE  (Pinm  flexilis).     This  is  a  middle- 
sized  tree,  with  warty  horizontal  branches,  found  growing  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  from  New  Mexico  to  Washington  Territory. 
It  is  the  prevailing  pine  east  of  the  Humboldt  Mountains,  in  Ne- 
vada, and  is  frequent  in  the  Wahsatch  and  Unita  Mountains,  from 
6,500  to  11,000  feet  above  tide.     It  grows  to  a  great  age,  and  when 
from  250  to  500  years  old,  becomes  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  and 
rarely  over  50  feet  in  height.     It  is  coarse,  cross-grained,  and  too 
knotty  for  good  lumber.    The  wood  is  pliable,  and  from  this  quality 


322 


The  Pines. 


156,    Pinus  Lambertiana:    The    Snjrar   Pine,  Cone,  and 
Leaves,  on  a  reduced  scale. 


the  common  name  is 
given.    In  British  Co- 
lumbia it  is  known  as 
the  "White  Pine,"  or 
"White-barked  Pine," 
and  the  seeds  are  col- 
lected by  the  Indians 
for  food.     A  variety, 
albicaulis,   (  described 
by  Professor  Newber- 
ry  as  the  Pinus  cem- 
broides),  grows  on  the 
Cascade     Mountains, 
up  to  the  timber-line, 
with  a  height  of  fifty 
feet  and   a  diameter 
of  two  feet.    The  bark 
is    thin,    milk-white, 
and    in   appearance 
something    like    that 
of  white   oak.      The 
wood  is    tough,   and 
the    leaves  near  the 
ends  of  the  branches. 

1310.  The    Pinus 
reflexa  grows   on   the 
Mexican    border,    in 
Arizona,  and  is  nearly 
related  to  the  preced- 
ing species. 

1311.  The    Firms 
Parryana  is   a   small 
tree,    growing    upon 
the  Mexican  border, 
in  California  and  Ar- 
izona, bearing  edible 
seeds.     It   is    closely 
related  to  the  follow- 
ing species: 


The  Pirns.  323 

1312.  THE  PINON  PINE  (Pinus  edulis).     This   abounds   in  the 
mountains  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  occupying  the  lower  ridges 
and  the  swells  of  laud  on  the  "divides"  between  the  headwaters  of 
these  regions.    The  seeds  are  sweetish  and  edible,  when  roasted,  «nd 
are  kept  for  sale  in  the  markets.     The  tree  itself  is  of  a  crabbed 
shrubby  growth,  spreading  out  like  an  old  neglected  apple  tree, 
and  usually  does  not  grow  more  than  25  to  SO  feet  high.     The 
wood  is  excellent  for  fuel,  but  too  small  and  poor  for  lumber  or 
other  uses. 

1313.  ONE-LEAVED  PINE  (Pinus  monophylla).     This  occurs  as  a 
low  tree,  from  20  to  25  feet  high,  with  an  open  rigid  habit,  and 
branches  spreading  or  sub-deflexed.     It   grows  from   the   eastern 
slope  of  the  Sierras,  and  from  thence  eastward,   in  Nevada,  Ar- 
izona, and  Utah.     It  also  occurs  in   Oregon,  at  an  elevation  of 
from  4,500  to  5,000  feet  above  tide.     It  has  large  edible  seeds, 
and  is  nearly  allied  to  the  piiion  pine  of  Southern  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico.     From  the  Sierras  to  the  Wahsatch,  this  pine  occurs 
scattered  over  the  dry  slopes,  and  seldom  more   than   15  feet  in 
height. 

1314.  Pinus  Bcdfouriana.     This  is  a  middle-sized  tree,  growing 
in  Northern  California  and  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  east 
of  the  Humboldt  range,  in  Nevada. 

1315.  THE  NORWAY  OR  RED  PINE  (Pinus  resinosa).     This  is  a 
northern  species,  growing  in  Canada  and  New  Brunswick,  and  along 
the  northern  border  of  the  United  States,  from  Maine  to  Minnesota. 
It  does  not  generally  form  large  bodies  of  timber,  but  occurs  in  de- 
tached clumps.     The  wood  is  coarser  than  that  of  the  white  pine, 
but  is  stronger,  and  much  used  for  bridges  and  other  timbers,  where 
strength  and  elasticity  are  required.    It  grows  to  the  height  of  sixty 
to  seventy  feet. 

1316.  The   Pinus    Torreyana  is   a   small   tree   on   the   southern 
coast  of  California,  bearing  large,   thick,  heavy  cones  with  edible 
seeds. 

1317.  The  Pinus  Arizonica  grows  on  the  Santa  Rita  Mountains  in 
Arizona,  and  is  nearly  related  to  the  following  species : 

1318.  THE  HEAVY  OR  WESTERN  YELLOW  PEN'E  (Pinus ponderosa). 
This  species  is  widely  scattered  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  in  the  Western  Territories,   and   the   Pacific   States.      It 


324 


The  Pines. 


covers  large  areas  as 
the  only  tree,  and  it 
is  mixed  in  places 
with  the  sugar  and 
other  pines.  It  grows 
to  magnificent  dimen- 
sions, and  thrives 
upon  arid  mountain 
slopes,  and  to  an 
elevation  of  11,000 
feet,  or  quite  up  to 
the  "  timber-line." 
It  is  found  from  5  to 
8  feet,  and  even  12 
feet  in  diameter,  and 
from  200  to  250  feet 
high,  in  favored  lo- 
calities. The  leaves 
of  this  species  arc  of 
a  dark  yellowish 
green,  differing  in 
this  from  the  deep 
blue-green  of  the  su- 
gar pine,  and  the  light 
blue-green  of  Sabine's  pine,  with  which  it  is  often  associated.  The  bark 
is  of  a  light  red,  but  yellowish  brown  within,  and  divided  into  large 
plates,  four,  six,  or  eight  inches  in  breadth,  and  flat  and  smooth, 
affording  a  characteristic  appearance  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  at  a 
considerable  distance. 

1319.  The  timber  of  the  yellow  pine  is  heavy  and  highly  resinous, 
but  is  not  as  strong  as  in  some  other  conifers.     In  recent  years  it 
has  been  used  in  immense  quantities  for  railroad  ties,  and  it  is  also 
much  used  for  mining  timbers.     The  grain  is  often  twisted,  and 
sometimes  into  the  closest  spiral. 

1320.  In  general  habit  it  most  resembles  the  })itch  pine  (P.  rigida) 
of  the  Atlantic  States,  but  it  grows  immensely  larger,  the  bark  is 
smoother,  and  the  wood  less  resinous.     The  latter  quality  appears 
to  depend  upon  the  soil  and  exposure,  and  differs  considerably  in 
different  places. 


157.  Cone,  Scales,  and  Leaves  of  the  Pinm  ponder- 
osa,  of  tvvo-tnirds  the  Natural  Size. 


The  Pines. 


325 


1321.  This  pine  is  known  in  British  Columbia  as  the  "  Yellow 
Pine,"  ' '  Reel  Pine,"  and  ' '  Pitch  Pine,"  and  in  that  Province  it  is  found 
only  in  the  central  dry  region,  between  the  Coast  Ranges  and  Selkirk 
and  Gold  Ranges,  northward,  from  49°  to  51°,  and  sparingly  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.     It  is  there  sawn  into  lumber, 
but  is  rather  brittle,  and  not  durable  where  exposed  to  the  weather. 
In  that  Province  it  does  not  generally  exceed  four  feet  in  diameter, 
and  at  3,000  feet  above  tide,  it  is  replaced  by  the  Douglas  fir  and 
twisted-branch  pine. 

1322.  THE  TWISTED-BRANCH  PINE  (Pinus  contorta).     This  tree  is 
found  in  the  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,   and  in  the  Pacific 
States,  growing  to  a  moderate 

sized  tree,  from  50  to  60  feet 
in  height,  and  a  foot  in  diam- 
eter at  a  yard  from  the  ground. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the 
curving  downward  and  in- 
ward of  the  dead  branches  in 
the  lower  part,  as  the  foliage 
drops  off.  This  peculiarity  is 
noticed  to  less  extent  in  other 
pines.  The  cones  remain  on 
for  several  years,  which  gives 
the  tree  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance. In  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains it  forms  large  forests  in 
the  lower  valleys,  and  it 
thrives  best  in  rnoist  valleys 
and  plains,  although  found 
at  6,000  feet  above  tide.  It  much  resembles  the  Pinus  imps,  or 
spruce-pine  of  New  Jersey  and  Maryland,  but  is  more  slender,  and 
grows  to  a  larger  size.  It  is  sometimes  locally  known  as  the  u  Red 
Pine." 

1323.  The  "  Western  Scrub-Pine,"  "  Bull-Pine,"  or  "  Black-Pine," 
as  this  is  variously  called  in  British  America,  extends  from  the  coast 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  forming  a  characteristic  tree  over  the 
northern  part  of  the  interior  plateau,  and  densely  covering  large 
areas.  On  the  coast  it  grows  small  and  gnarled,  upon  the  dunes 
and  exposed  rocky  coast.  In  the  interior  it  is  found  from  60  to  100 


158.  Cone,  Leaves,  Scales,  and  Seed  of  the 
Pinus  contorta,  of  two-thirds  the  Natural 


326  The  Pines. 

feet  in  height,  but  usually  not  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter.  In 
Alaska  it  extends  as  far  as  the  Yokun  river,  ond  over  large  areas  in- 
to the  Peace-river  region.  The  wood  is  seldom  used  for  timber,  ow- 
ing to  its  small  size,  but  is  white  and  fairly  durable.  The  cambium 
layer  contains  much  sugar,  is  eaten  by  the  Indians  in  the  spring, 
and  in  some  instances  large  quantities  of  it  are  collected  and  dried 
for  winter  use.1 

1324.  THE  HARD-NUT  PINE  OR  DIGGER-PINE  (Pinus  Sabiniana). 
This  pine  so  notable  on  account  of  the  great  size  and  solidity  of  its 
cones,  does  not  form  dense  forests,  but  is  widely  disseminated  in 
California  and  Oregon,  being  generally  scattered  sparsely  over  the 
most  rocky  surfaces  not  occupied  by  other  trees.     The  seeds  afford 
subsistence  to  the  Indians  in  many  places. 

1325.  Dr.  Douglas  describes*  this  tree  as  of  Alpine  habit,  but 
Prof.  Newberry's  observations  disprove  this.2     The  tree  spreads  out 
more  like  an  oak  or  a  maple  than  a  conifer  as  it  usually  grows ;  its 
foliage  is  a  pale  bluish-green,  and  thin,  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
tree  is  light  and  airy.     The  author  last  quoted  describes  the  cones  as 
solitary,  ovid,  sometimes  as  large  as  one's  head,  and  very  ponderous, 
being  covered  with  spurs  or  strong  curved  spires  an  inch  or  more 
long,  of  which  the  broad  bases  cover  all  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
scales.     The  seeds  are  as  large  as  beans,  and  very  palatable,  having, 
however,  a  slight  terebinthine  taste.     The  leaves  are  in  threes,  from 
eight    to    ten   inches   long.     The  timber  is  of  little  value,   on  ac- 
count of  its  irregular  and  spreading  form. 

1326.  The  Pinus  Coulteri  much  resembles  the  above,  and  has  a 
very  thick,  rough,  blackish  bark.     The  leaves  are  in  threes,  six  to 
ten  inches  long,  stiff,  erect,  and  crowded  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
Its  cones  are  as  large,  but  the  seeds  are  smaller.     They  are  both 
found  on  the  Coast  Range,  where  we  also  find  two  unimportant  spe- 
cies, the  P.  tuberculata  and  P.  muricata. 

1327.  THE   MONTEREY  PINE   (Pinus  insignia),   grows  upon   a 
very  restricted  area,  to  the  height  of  80  to  100  feet,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Monterey.     Its  cones  are  one-sided   and  in  clusters,  of  rather 
large  size ;  but  it  is  too  limited  in  amount  to  be  of  interest  as  a  tim- 
ber tree. 

1328.  LOBLOLLY,  OR  OLD-FIELD  PINE  (Pinus  tceda).     This  pine 

1G.  M.  Dawson's  "Trees  of  British  Columbia,''  p.  8. 

2 Pacific  Railway  Explorations,  Vol.  VI.,  Purt  iii.,  p.  40. 


159.  Pinus  Sabiwana.—  Cone  one-third  the  Natural  Size;  Leaves  and  Seed  of  Natural 

Size. 


328  The  Pines. 

derives  its  common  name  from  coming  up  spontaneously  in  aban- 
doned fields.  It  grows  from  50  to  70  feet  in  height,  with  a  diame- 
er  of  two  to  three  feet,  and  a  spreading  top.  The  wood  is  sappy 
and  coarse,  liable  to  warp  and  shrink,  and  is  not  durable  on  expo- 
sure. It  is  sometimes  tapped  for  turpentine,  but  yields  less  than  the 
long-leaved  pine. 

1329.  Varieties  are  known  in  North  Carolina  as  "  Swamp  Pine," 
"  Slash  Pine,"  and  about  Wilmington  as  the  "  Rosemary  Pine."   In 
the  West-Roanoke  Swamps,  it  has  been  found  5  feet  in  diameter, 
and  150  to  170  feet  in  height. 

1330.  PITCH  PINE  (Pinus  rigida*).     This  pine  grows  to  great  ad- 
vantage upon  sandy  soils  in  New  England  and  New  York,  and  ex- 
tends into  the  Western  and  Southern  States.     It  has  been  seen  in 
Maine  and  Massachusetts,  four  to  five  feet  in  diameter  and  100  feet 
high,  but  its  usual  size  is  from  40  to  50  feet  and  its  diameter  from 
one  to  two  feet.     It  grows  very  rapidly  in  early  life,  and  on  account 
of  its  deeply  penetrating  roots  it  is  difficult  to  plant,  and  is  usually 
sown  in  the  place  where  it  is  to  grow.     It  has  been  found  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  the  sandy  soil  upon  Cape  Cod,  and  in  other  light 
soils  near  the  sea  coast. 

1331.  The  custom  of  planting  there  is  as  follows:  In  the  latter 
part  of  October  the  cones  are  gathered,  put  up  in  boxes  or  barrels, 
and  kept  in  a  cool  place.     Before  spring  they  will  have  mostly 
opened,  and  the  seeds  will  readily  come  out.     Sometimes  they  are 
heated  a  little,  but  this  is  liable  to  injure  the  vitality  of  the  seed. 
From  a  half  to  three-fourths  of  a  pound  will  plant  an  acre  of  land, 
and  the  seed  is  worth  from  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  pound.     A  bushel  of 
cones  will  produce  about  a  pound  of  seed. 

1332.  They  may  be  planted  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  best  in 
early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.     The  custom 
generally  is,  to  run  a  series  of  furrows  5  or  6  feet  apart  over  the 
laud,  but  some  plant  in  rows  only  4  feet  apart,  while  others  allow  a 
space  of  8  to  10  feet.     The  seeds  are  dropped  in  by  hand,  three  or 
four  in  a  place,  and  about  three  feet  apart,  and  are  very  slightly 
covered  with  a  hoe.     Sjmetimes  a  seed-planter  is  used,  and  at  much 
less  cost  of  labor,  with  good  success.     A  boy  should  follow  to  cover 
up  the  seeds  not  covered. 

1333.  The  cost  of  planting  varies  from  $3  to  $5  per  acre.     Gen- 
erally no  further  care  is  taken,  the  trees  coming  up  of  themselves. 


The  Pines.  329 

They  bear  fruit  early  and  show  a  tendency  to  self  seeding.  Upon 
Nantucket,  we  have  noticed  that  they  spread  most  toward  the  east 
or  southeast  under  the  effects  of  prevailing  winds,  and  this  will 
generally  be  found  the  case  elsewhere.  These  plantations  are  liable 
to  suffer  from  fire,  and  occasionally  from  insect  ravages. 

1334.  In  Virginia  this  species  is  sometimes  called  the  "Black 
Pine."     It  grows  from  30  to  50  feet  in  height.     The  wood  of  the 
pitch  pine,   is  coarse,   resinous,    and   heavy,   and  generally  very 
knotty.     It  is  sometimes  used  in  making  tar,  but  is  not  of  value 
in  commerce,  although  from  its  resinous  properties  it  makes  an  ex- 
cellent firewood. 

1335.  The  variety  serotina,  known  as  "Pond  Pine,"  is  a  southern 
species,  growing  in  swamps  to  a  height  of  40  to  50  feet.     It  has 
sometimes  been  used  for  the  masts  of  small  vessels. 

1336.  SPRUCE,  OR  JERSEY-PINE  (Pinus  mops).      This  pine,  in 
New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  southward  to  Florida,  shows  a  tendency 
to  spread  and  occupy  vacant  lauds.     It  is  variously  known  as  "  Ce- 
dar-Pine," "  River-Pine,"  and  "  Scrub- Pine,"  and  grows  to  from  20 
to  40  feet  in  height  and  from  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter.     It  is 
chiefly  valuable  for  firewood. 

1337.  PRICKLY  PINE  (Pinus  pungens).     This  is  sometimes  called 
the  "  Table-Mountain  Pine."     It  grows  from  Pennsylvania  south- 
ward, but  to  best  advantage  in  North  Carolina.     It  is  common  on 
the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  but  not  further  west.     It 
grows  from  30  to  50  feet  in  height,  and  from  12  to  20  inches  in  di- 
ameter. 

1338.  SHORT-LEAVED  YELLOW  PINE  (Finns  mitis).    This  pine  is 
widely  diffused,  but  grows  to  best  size  and  quality  in  the  South- 
western and  Southern  States,  where  it  is  used  for  lumber.    It  usually 
grows  from  40  to  60  feet  in  height,  and  from  15  inches  to  2  feet  in 
diameter.    The  heart- wood  is  fine  grained,  but  moderately  resinous, 
but  the  sap-wood  is  perishable. 

1339.  THE  SPRUCE  PINE  (Pinus  glabra)  is  a  southern  species, 
found  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 

1340.  GRAY  OR  SCRUB-PINE  :  BANK'S  PINE  (Pinus  Banksiana). 
This  is  a  northern  species,  occurring  from  Maine  westward  to  North- 
ern Wisconsin  and  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan.    It  is  found  in 
Canada  and  far  northward  in  British  America,  growing  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  feet  in  height,  but  nowhere  of  size  to  make  it  suitable  for 


330  The  Pines. 

lumber.  Its  leaves  are  in  pairs,  short  and  rigid,  and  its  cones  are 
slightly  curved  and  with  pointless  scales.  They  sometimes  remain 
on  for  many  years. 

1341.  THE  LONG-LEAVED  OR  SOUTHERN  YELLOW  PINE  (Pinus 
australis).     This  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  southern  pines, 
and  extends  from  Virginia  around  into  Texas.     It  usually  grows  to 
the  height  of  60  to  70  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  15  to  20  inches,  but 
in  favorable  conditions  to  a  larger,  size.     In  richer  soils  it  is  less 
resinous,  and  from  a  reddish  tinge  to  the  wood  is  called  "  Ked  Pine." 
A  tree  with  a  small  top  is  said  to  indicate  the  best  heart-wood. 
This  species  furnishes  most  of  the  resinous  products  of  the  Southern 
States,  as  already  described.     [§  795.] 

1342.  As  a  timber,  it  is  scarcely  rivaled  by  any  of  the  pines  for 
durability  and  strength,  and  large  quantities  are  exported  annually 
to  foreign  markets  and  to  the  Northern  States.     Trees  that  have 
been  worked  for  turpentine  are  less  valued  as  timber,  and  such  are 
sometimes  excluded  in  contracts  for  supplies. 

1343.  The  long-leaved  pine  was  noticed  by  Michaux  as  a  poor 
seeder,  and  in  unfruitful  years  a  cone  can  not  be  found  within  hun- 
dreds of  miles.     A  correspondent  remarks:   "According  to  my  ob- 
servation, these  unfruitful  years  are  far  more  common   than  the 
fruitful  ones.     In  its  struggle  for  existence  in  our  days,  the  odds  of 
a  survival  of  its  kind  among  the  arborescent  vegetation  that  disputes 
its  ground  are  greatly  against  it.     Taken  from  the  flat  moist  lands, 
it  is  replaced  almost  exclusively  by  the  Pond  and  Old-field  Pine ;  the 
hilly,  broken,  dry  upland,  denuded  of  the  grand  old  pine  forest,  is 
with  surprising  rapidity  covered  by  a  dense  and  shrubby  growth  of 
black-jack,  turkey-oak,  scarlet  and  upland  oak,  above  which  seldom 
a  young  pine  raises  its  head,  crowned  with  its  large  white-fringed 
terminal  bud. 

1344.  "  Full  of  resinous  juices  through  ail  stages  of  its  life,  the 
young  trees  are  not  as  able  to  withstand  the  raging  fires  that  an- 
nually devastate  the  woods  as  the  less  resinous  species  and  the  de- 
ciduous-leaved trees ;  besides  that,  being  of  much  slower  growth, 
this  noble  tree  is  doomed  to  extinction,  if  not  protected  by  man. 
On  tracts  sheltered  from  the  invasion  of  fire,  groves  of  young  trees 
from  15  to  25  feet  can  be  observed  around  Mobile,  testifying  that 
its  existence  for  the  future  can  in  some  measure  be  secured,  if  pro- 


The  Pines. 


331 


tected    from    these    destructive    influences,    unnecessarily   caused 
by  man."  l 

1345.  ELLIOTT'S  PINE  (Pinus  ElUottii).     This  is  a  southern-coast 
pine,  growing  in  light  damp  sandy  soils,  along  marshes,  and  near 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  never  far  inland,  and  showing  a  tendency  to 
form  a  second  growth  where  other  timber  has  been  cut  away.     It 
generally  bears  fruit  every  year,  while  the  long-leaved  and  other 
pines  in  that  region  generally  are  fertile  on  alternate  years.     It 
blossoms  early,  and  has  a  dense  heavy  head,  dark  foliage,  and  larger 
and  heavier  branches  than  most  other  southern  pines.     The  leaves 
are  generally  in  threes.    The  timber  is  heavy,  very  tough,  and  more 
resinous  than  that  of  the  long-leaved  pine.     It  grows  rapidly  while 
young,  and  from  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  propagated,  it 
may  become  an  important 

tree  in  forest-culture  in  the 
future. 

1346.  This  has  formerly 
been  considered  a  variety 
of  the   Old-field  Pine  (P. 
taeda),    but    it  appears  to 
present     distinct     specific 
characters,    that   have   led 
Dr.  Engelmann  to  recently 
describe    it  as  a  separate 
species. 

1347.  SCOTCH  PINE  (Pi- 
nus sylvestris).    This  foreign 
species  is  here  mentioned, 
because  it   has  been  intro- 
duced for  cultivation,  and 
has  been  found  exceedingly 
well  adapted  to  certain  light 
sandy  soils,  where  it  grows 
with  great  luxuriance.     It 
is  the  principal  pine  of  Cen- 
tral and  Northern  Europe, 

and  is  spread  over  all  North-  m  Pto 


Besoms.  Piuc-Leavcs  an 


lDr.  Charles  Mohr.     Forestry  Report,  ii.,  36. 


332  The  Spruces. 

ern  Asia,  wherever  pines  grow.  It  has  been  found  to  grow  very 
well  in  Iowa,  and  has  been  planted  with  good  success  upon  Cape 
Cod,  in  Massachusetts.  Between  these  regions  it  can  be  planted 
almost  anywhere,  if  the  soil  is  sandy  and  somewhat  fertile. 

1348.  The  Scotch  pine  comes  to  maturity  and  greatest  value  in 
Northern  Europe  in  GO  to  80  years  ;  after  which  its  growth  in  cubic 
contents  is  slow.     At  Balmoral,  Scotland,  a  crop,  under  favorable 
conditions,  at  60  years,  averaged  60  cubic  feet  to  a  tree,  and  at  200 
years  25  cubic  feet,  and  90  to  100  trees  to  the  acre.     The  choicest 
portions  of  the  forest  yielded  30  to  35  feet  to  the  tree,  and  120  to 
130  trees  to  the  acre.     The  height  ranged  from  70  to  80  feet.     On 
moor-pan  soil,  at  60  years,  they  yielded  but  8  cubic  feet  each,  and 
at  100  years  but  10  cubic  feet.     In  Prussia  this  tree  constitutes 
over  half  of  the  public  forests.     In  Europe  it  is  known  under  a 
great  variety  of  names,  as  "  Riga  Pine,"  "  Haguenau  Pine,"  etc., 
and  it  differs  very  greatly  under  cultivation,  as  well  in  the  form  and 
habit  of  its  growth  as  in  the  quality  of  its  wood,  as  variously  modi- 
fied by  climate,  soil,  and  other  influences. 

THE  SPRUCES.     (Genus  Picea.') 

1349.  Of  this  genus  there  are  about  a  dozen  species,  of  which  two 
are  found  in  Europe,  five  in  Asia,  and  five  in  North  America.     Of 
the  latter,  two  are  found  on  the  eastern  and  three  on  the  western 
side.     The  spruces  have  pendulous  cones,  with  the  bracts  shorter 
than  the  scales,  and  both  persistent.     The  cones  ripen  in  the  fall  of 
the  same  year  that  they  form,  but  do  not  open  to  disperse  their  seeds 
till   the  spring  following.     The  engraving  (page  333)  represents 
a  twig  of  the  common  European  spruce,  now  widely  introduced  as 
an  ornamental  tree,  and  when  young  quite  a  beautiful  object,  the 
branches  coming  out  symmetrically  from  the  ground  upward,  and 
the  whole  taking  a  dense  and  compact  pyramidal  form.     It  does 
not  grow  with  us  to  as  great  a  size  or  age  as  in  Northern  Europe, 
nor  is  it  an  object  inviting  to  notice  for  forest  culture,  but  exceed- 
ingly well  adapted  to  the  formation  of  screens  and  wind-breaks. 

1350.  The  two  eastern  species  in  the  United  States  are  the  Picea, 
alba,  or  WHITE  SPRUCE,  and  the  P.  nigra,  or  BLACK  SPRUCE.    They 
are  found  most  common  along  the  northern  border  of  the  United 
States,  from  Maine  to  Northern  Minnesota.     The  former  extends 
further  northward,  being  found  as  an  important  timber  tree  only  in 


The  Spruces. 


333 


the  northern  part  of  Maine  and  further  north  in  Canada.  The  latter 
forms  extensive  forests  in  Northern  New  England  and  New  York, 
and  both  extend  along  the  mountains  southward  to  North  Carolina, 
but  do  not  occur  as  important  timber  trees  in  that  region. 


161.  Picea  excelna:  Common  European  or  Norway  Spruce,  Leaves, 
Blossoms,  and  a  False  Cone  formed  from  Insect  Injuries. 

1351.  The  wood  of  both  the  white  and  the  black  spruce  is  white, 
strong,  and  elastic,  but  rather  coarse-grained.     It  is  much  prized  for 
flooring,  and  for  building-timber,  but  is  not  durable  when  exposed 
to  the  weather,  excepting  when  laid  with  the  grain  of  the  wood 
vertical.     Shingles  made  of  spruce  are  sometimes  very  good,  but  are 
inferior  to  those  of  white  pine,  cypress,  cedar,  red-wood,  and  manyi 
other  kinds. 

1352.  From  its  lightness  and  strength,  this  wood  is  valued  for 
yard-arms  and  small  masts  in  vessels.     The  roots  and  base  of  the 
trunk  are  used  for  knees  for  canal-boats,  barges,  etc.     The  spruce 
best  adapted  for  working,  and  the  strongest,  most  elastic,  and  most 
durable,  comes  from  elevated  regions,  a  dry  soil,  and  a  southern  ex- 


334  The  Spruces. 

posure.  It  is  from  such  localities  that  the  best  material  for  sound- 
ing-boards of  pianos  is  derived,  and  it  would  be  useless  to  seek  this 
wood  of  best  quality  for  this  use  in  trees  grown  upon  low  swampy 
grounds.  When  sawn  for  this  purpose,  the  logs  are  first  quartered, 
and  then  sawn  as  near  as  may  be  vertically  to  the  lines  of  growth. 

1353.  The  black  spruce,  when  grown  in  dense  masses,  makes  a 
tall  and  slender  tree,  very  strong  and  elastic,  and  well  suited  for 
poles  for  scaffolding,  flag-staffs,  and  the  like,  .and  for  rafters  aiid 
sleepers  in  buildings.     In  dry  situations,  as  hewn  timber,  it  is  strong 
and  durable,  but  light,  and  for  this  reason  easier  to  place  than  most 
of  the  hard-woods,  while  it  surpasses  the  most  of  them  in  strength. 

1354.  The  growth  of  the  spruce  is  remarkably  rapid,  and  under 
careful  management  it  is  much  less  liable  to  be  run  out  by  other  trees 
than  most  other  species.     A  spruce  forest  carefully  protected  against 
fires,  and  the  cutting  limited  to  trees  that  are  large  enough  for  saw- 
ing into  boards,  may  be  cut  over  at  intervals  of  ten  or  fifteen  years 
to  great  profit.     The  young  shoots  of  the  spruce  are  used  in  mak- 
ing beer;  an  essential  oil  is  distilled  from  the  leaves,  and  a  gum 
having  a  market  value  exudes  from  the  trunk. 

1355.  ENGELMANN'S  SPRUCE  (Picea  Engelmannii).     This  much 
resembles  the  black  spruce  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada,  but 
grows  to  greater  size.     It  is  found  upon  the  interior  plateau  from 
British  Columbia  southward  to  California,  and  in  Montana  and  New 
Mexico.     Its  northern  and  uorth-easteru  limits  are  not  definitely  as- 
certained.    It  has  been  found  on  Peace  river  in  British  America. 
It  forms  a  superior  timber,  and  is  very  durable. 

1356.  This  is  a  tall  pyramidal  tree,  with  a  thin  scaly  bark  of  a 
reddish  or  purplish  brown  color,  and  white  soft  wood.     East  of  the 
Humboldt  Mountains,  in  Nevada,  and  on  the  Wahsatch  and  Unita 
Mountains,  it  grows  to  an  elevation  of  8,000  to  10,000  feet.     In 
these  regions  it  is  known  as  the  "  White  Pine." 

13  J7.  THE  BLUE  ROCK Y-MOUNTAIN  SPRUCE  ( Picea pungens).  This 
is  a  Rocky  Mountain  species,  extending  from  New  Mexico  through 
Colorado  and  Utah  to  Idaho  and  Oregon.  It  grows  to  a  large  size, 
and  at  elevations  of  7,000  to  10,000  feet  above  tide.  This  is  found 
to  be  well  adapted  to  the  Northern  and  New  England  States,  being 
hardy,  of  rapid  growth  and  of  remarkable  beauty  of  foliage,  the 
color  being  a  bluish  green.  It  has  long  been  known  under  the 
name  of  the  Abies,  or  Picea  Menziesii,  but  the  ' '  Menzies  Spruce  "  of 


The  Spruces:   The  Hemlocks 


335 


the  coast  belongs  to  the  following  species,  and  is  now  known  under 
the  name  by  -which  it  was  described  at  an  earlier  period  : 

1358.  THE  MEXZIES  SPRUCE  (Picca  Sitchensis)  is  found  from  Men- 
docino  Co.,  California,  to  Alaska,  and  is  strictly  a  coast  species.     It 
seldom  grows  at  an  elevation  of 

more  than  500  feet,  but  in  Ore- 
gon, Washington  Territory,  and 
British  Columbia,  it  attains  a 
large  size,  being  sometimes  150 
to  200  feet  in  height,  with  a  di- 
ameter of  six  to  nine  feet.  It  is 
exported  as  a  timber,  and  is 
coarse  but  strong.  It  grows  to 
best  advantage  on  a  damp  sandy 
soil.  The  common  name  is  given 
in  honor  of  Dr.  Archibald  Men- 
zies,  who  was  surgeon  and  botan- 
ist in  Vancouver's  exploring  ex- 
pedition, about  the  end  of  the  162.  Lenves  and  Cone  of  the  :.renzies 
j  j"  j  •  10^0  Spruce,  of  two-thirds  Uie  Natural 

last  century,  and  died  m  1842.  size. 

THE  HEMLOCKS.    (Genus  Tsuga.) 

1359.  There  have  usually  been  described  under  the  genus  Abies, 
but  are  now  classified  separately.     The  cones  are  usually  small  and 
pendant  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  the  bracts  shorter  than  the  scales, 
and  both  remain  adherent  to  the  axis.     The  leaves  arc  flat  or  angled, 
in  two  rows,  and  with  a  very  short  petiole.     There  arc  five  species, 
of  which  one  is  found  in  Asia,  and  four  in  North  America.     Of  the 
latter,  two  are  found  on  the  eastern  and  two  en  the  western  side. 

13GO.  THE  HEMLOCK  (Tsuga  Canadensis).  This  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  diffused  and  most  useful  of  the  conifers  in  the  Northern 
States,  extending  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin,  and  along  the  Alle- 
ghenics  southward  to  North  Carolina.  It  is  abundant  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  in  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In  North  Carolina,  where  it  oc- 
curs on  the  borders  of  mountain  ravines  and  in  cold  swamps,  it  is 
known  as  "Spruce-Pine."  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "Hemlock- 
Spruce,"  and  by  the  French  of  Canada  "  Peruche." 

1361.  In  the  Northern  States,  and  especially  in  New  Yoriv  and 
Pennsylvania,  its  bark  is  used  to  an  immense  extent  for  the  tanning 


336 


The  Hemlocks. 


of  sole-leather,  and  in  some  regions  where  the  trees  have  been  cut 
aiul  peeled  for  their  bark,  the  lumber  is  still  allowed  to  rot  upon  the 
ground. 

1362.  It  sometimes  occurs  of  immense  size,  and  in  considerable 
bodies  by  itself,  but  is  very  often  intermixed  with  deciduous  kinds. 
The  wood  of  the  hemlock  is  coarse,  but  strong,  and  is  largely  used 
in  the  form  of  planks  and  scantling  for  building  purposes,  bridges, 
and  the  like,  or  as  boards  for  fences,  roof-boards,  the  siding  of  barns 
and  other  coarse  purposes.     When  the  grain  is  placed  vertical,  it 
endures  exposure  to  the  weather  for  a  long  period.    The  young  wood 
is  much  used  for  railway  ties,  but  is  not  as  durable  as  many  other 
kinds. 

1363.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  native  species, 
when  planted  in  parks  among  deciduous  kinds,  or  singly,  and  is  less 
liable  to  injury  from  insects  than  the  spruces  and  the  pines. 

1364.  The  Tsuga  Caroliniana  is  a  southern  species,  occurring  on 
the  mountains  of  Western  North  Carolina,  and  much  resembling 
the  one  above  described. 

1365.  The  Tsuya  Pattoniana  grows  in  the  upper  timber-region  of 
the  Sierras,  from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  above  tide,  but  at  this  ele- 
vation it  is  only  a  shrub.     In  lower  localities  it  is  found  from  100 

to  150  feet  liigh,  and  from  2  to  4 
feet  in  diameter.  It  is  a  large, 
graceful,  and  slender  tree,  with  bright 
green  foliage,  and  purple  cones,  from 
an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in 
length.  It  has  formerly  been  known 
as  the  "Abies  Williamsoniana" 

1366.  THE  OREGON  HEMLOCK 
(Tsuga  Mertcnsiand) .  This  is  a  tree 
found  native  upon  the  Pacific  Coast 
from  California  to  Alaska,  being  often 
found  from  100  to  200  feet  high,  and  6 
to  8  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  is 
finer  than  our  common  hemlock,  and 
the  bark  is  more  red,  and  is  used  for 

tanning  purposes.      It  does  not  ex- 
163.  View  of  the  Side  aiu  Aiu,a^  or  an  . 

old  cone  of  Williamson's  Spruce,  tend  beyond  the  region  of  abundant 

with  scale,  Se-ds.  and  Leaf,  of  two-      .        „  J 
thirds  the  .Natural  Size.  ramiall. 


7 he  Douglas  Fir. 


337 


THE  DOUGLAS  FIR.    (Pseudotsuga,  Douglasii.)1 

1367.  This  is  incomparably  the  finest  of  the  firs,  surpassing  them 
all  in  size,  and  equaling  the  best  in  value 

as  a  timber  tree.  It  extends  from  Mex- 
ico, New  Mexico,  and  Colorado,  through 
the  mountain  regions  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
occurring  in  Oregon  to  the  enormous  size 
of  200  to  300  feet  in  height,  and  from 
15  to  20  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  more 
commonly  about  150  feet  high,  and  from 
4  to  8  feet  in  diameter. 

1368.  This  tree  has  a  tall  pyramidal 
growth,    with   horizontal    and    drooping 
branches.     The  bark  is  rather  thin,  of  an 
ash   or  reddish   color,   and    the  wood  is 
coarse-grained,  but  tough  and  hard.     It 
extends     northward    into    Alaska,    and 
is  largely  developed   in  British  Colum- 
bia.    Professor  Newberry   in   describing 

this    tree    as    it    grows    in    Oregon,  154.  Cone  and  Leaves  of  the 

Douglas  Fir,    of   two-thirds 
says:  the  Natural  Size. 

1369.  "The  trees  stand  relatively  as  near  each  other,  and  the 
trunks  are  as  tall  and  slender,  as  the  canes  in  a  canebrake.     In  this 
case,  the  foliage  is  confined  to  the  tuft  at  the  top  of  the  tree,  the 
trunk  forming  a  cylindrical  column  as  straight  as  an  arrow,  and 
almost  without  branches  for  two  hundred  feet.     The  amount  of 
timber  on  an  acre  of  this  forest  very  much  exceeds  that  on  a  simi- 
lar area  in  the  tropics  or  in  any  part  of  the  world  I  has  e  visited." 

1370.  The  Douglas  fir,  in  British  Columbia,  forms  the  principal 
lumber  yet  exported  from  that  Province.     It  forms  dark  and  dense 
forests  of  considerable  extent,  the  wood  being,  for  the  most  part, 
of  excellent  quality  for  ship-building,  but  varying  considerably  in 
strength  and  texture,  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it 

1  Commonly  described  as  the  "Abies  Douglnsii,"  and  known  by  a  great  va- 
riety of  common  names,  such  as  "  Red  "  or  "  Black  "  Fir,  "  Red  "  or  "  Black  " 
Spruce,  " Hemlock,"  '•  Oregon  Pine,"  "Western  Pitch  Pine,"  etc.     In  the 
Uinto  Mountains,  it  is  known  as  the  "Bear  River  Pine,"  or  "Swamp  Pine." 
22 


338  The  Douglas  Fir:   The  Firs,  Proper. 

has  grown.     It  is  shipped  for  masts  and  spars  to  Great  Britain, 
South  America,  Australia,  India,  China,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

1371.  This  tree  is  very  accommodating  as  to  soil,  but  prefers  that 
which  is  deep  and  damp,  with  a  stiff  subsoil,  provided  that  it  is 
we;l  drained.     It  has   been  introduced  into  Scotland  with  much 
success,  and  is  there  a  favorite  tree  for  planting,  both  for  ornament 
and  for  timber.     It  is  found  to  withstand  the  drouth  better  than  most 
conifers,  while  it  equals  or  surpasses  most  of  them  in  growth.     It 
was  first  introduced  into  that  country  in  1826,  and  a  tree  planted 
the  next  year  is  now  100  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  in  1873  had  a 
girth  of  9  feet  7  inches  at  3  feet  from  the  ground. 

1372.  It  is  found,  from  observation,  that  in  the  colony  of  Victo- 
ria, this  tree  will  not  flourish  in  exposed  situations  or  near  the  sea, 
but  it  is  admirably  adapted  to  form  large  bodies  of  forests  in  Alpine 
glens,  and  in  the  cooler  climate  of  the  mountain  regions. 

1373.  The  specific  name  of  this  splendid  tree  was  given  by  Pro- 
fessor Lindley  in  honor  of  Dr.  David  Douglas,  who  was  sent  by  the 
Horticultural  Society  of  London,  in  1825,  to  study  the  flora  and 
collect  seeds  and  specimens  upon  the  Pacific  Coast.     He  returned 
in  1827,  and  in  a  subsequent  journey  lost  his  life,  by  an  accident, 
in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  in  July,  1834. 

THE  FIRS,     (Genus  Abies.) 

1374.  Of  these  there  are  about  eighteen  species,  of  which  eight 
are  found  in  the  United  States — two  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the 
remainder  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  upon  the  Pacific  Coast. 
The  firs  have  the  bracts  of  the  cones  longer  than  the  scales — some- 
times conspicuously  long,  and  when  ripe  they  fall  to  pieces.     The 
cones  are  erect.     The  leaves  are  in  two  ranks  on  the  twigs,  and  rel- 
atively short  and  rigid.     The  details  of  inflorescence  in  this  genus, 
as  they  are  found  in  the  silver  fir,  will  be  seen  upon  a  subsequent 
page. 

1375.  THE  BALSAM  FIR  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA  (Abies  Fraserii), 
much  resembles  the  silver  fir  of  Europe,  but  seldom  grows  more 
than  40  feet  high  and  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter.     It  is  found  on 
the  western  mountains  over  4,000  feet  above  tide,  sometimes  form- 
ing forests  of  itself,  and  giving  name,  from  its  dark  foliage,  to  the 
"  Black  Mountains." 

1376.  THE  BALSAM  Fm  (Abies  balsamea).     This  is  common  in 


The  Firs,  Proper.  339 

Canada  and  in  swamps  and  damp  soils  in  the  Northern  States,  ex- 
tending southward  into  Virginia,  and  westward  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi. It  has  a  very  symmetrical  growth,  and  its  regular  conic 
form  gives  a  characteristic  aspect  to  the  forests  where  it  occurs.  It 
grows  to  50  or  60  feet  in  height,  and  its  wood  is  coarse  a;.d  white, 
but  not  strong.  It  is  used  however  for  lumber,  but  should  be 
"protected  from  the  weather.  This  tree  grows  well  under  cultivation 
in  a  humid  soil,  and  it  may  be  used  with  success,  in  wet  place,  in 
planting  wind-breaks.  The  "Canada  Balsam"  of  druggists  is  ob- 
tained from  Ulisters  in  the  bark  of  this  tree. 

1377.  THE  BALSAM  SPRUCE  (Abies  subalpina),  much  resembling 
the  Northern  Balsam  Fir,  grows  in  Colorado  and  northward  into 
British  North  America,  occurring  on  the  highest  mountains  and 
quite  up  to  the  timber-lino.     It  grows  to  a  tree  two  feet  in  diameter 
and  a  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  in  sheltered  places,  but  the 
wood  is  soft  and  poor.     This  specie?,  in  British  Columbia,  appears 
to  take  the  place  of  the  A.  grandis  in  the  region  east  of  the  Coast 
Range.  ,  It  extends  into  the  Peace  River  district,  and  occurs  in  cold, 
damp  situations  in  the  country  between  Lesser  Slave  Lake  and  the 
Athabasca  River.     The  tree  often  exceeds  two  feet  in  diameter,  but 
the  wood  is  said  to  be  almost  worthless. 

1378.  Abies  concolor.  This  is  the  "  White  Balsam,"  or  "White  Fir," 
of  South  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Arizona,  and  is  found  westward  in 
the  Sierras  and  northward  to  Southern  Oregon.     It  grows  at  an  el- 
evation of  3,000  to  8,000  feet,  and  to  a  height  of  100  to  150  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  two  to  four  feet.     It  derives  its  common  name 
from  the  light  color  of  its  foliage,  both  of  the  under  and  the  upper 
sides  of  its  leaves. 

1379.  RED  Fm  (Abies  magnified}.    This  species  grows  on  the  high 
Sierras  of  California  and  northward,  at  an  elevation  of  7,000  to 
10,000  feet,  and  sometimes  to  a  height  of  200  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  eight  to  ten  feet.     The  wood  is  of  a  reddish  color,  from  whence 
its  name,  and  it  is  strong  and  durable.     This  species  bears  larger 
cones  than  any  other  of  the  genus. 

1380.  THE  WESTERN  SILVER  FIR  (Abies  dmabilis).     This  tree 
occurs  among  the  Cascade  Mountains.-    It  grows  with  remarkable 
symmetry  of  form,  and  in  favorable  situations,  to  more  than  a  hun- 
dred feet  in  height,  forming  a  slender  spire  of  dark  green,  and  when 
occurring  with  other  kinds  sometimes  presenting  groups  of  rcmarka- 


340 


The  Firs,  Proper. 


165.  Cone  and  Leaves  of  the  Abies  amabilis, 
of  one-third  the  natural  length 


ble  beauty.  Its  range  extends 
from  Washington  Territory  to 
Wyoming  and  New  Mexico. 

1381.  THE    NOBLE    FIR 
(Abies  nobilis).      In   general 
aspect,    this    resembles    the 
Western  Silver  Fir  (A  ama- 
bilis), but  the  foliage   is  of 
lighter  green,  and  the  branch- 
es more  rigid.     It  grows  to  a 
height  of  200  feet,  with  a  di- 
ameter of  six  to  ten  feet,  and 
it  has  a  thick  cinnamon-col- 
ored bark,  which   is  red  on 
the  inside.  This  tree  is  known 
also  as  the  "  Red  Fir,"  and 
forms    forests     in    Northern 
California.     It   is   fouud    on 
Mount  Shasta,  at  from  6,000 
to  8,000  feet  above  tide ;  on 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  and 
on  the  Columbia  River.     Its 
wood  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
that  of  any  other  of  the  firs. 

1382.  THE  WESTERN  BAL- 
SAM FIR  ( Abies  grandis).  This 
is  a  large  tree,  nearly  resem- 
bling the  Western  Silver  Fir. 
It  occurs  in  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, upon   the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada and  Cascade  Mountains, 
along  with  the  sugar  and  the 
yellow   pines,   which   are  at 
times  scarcely  superior  to  it 

in  size.  On.  the  Columbia  and  the  Willamette,  it  is  known  as  the 
"  White  Spruce,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Douglas  Spruce.  Most 
of  the  lumber  exported  from  Oregon  is  from  these  two  trees.  This 
tree  grows  to  the  height  of  200  to  300  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  four 
to  six  feet.  In  British  Columbia  it  is  limited  to  the  coast,  and  its 


166.  Cone  nnd  Leaves  of  the  Abies  nobilis,  of 
two-thirds  the  natural  size. 


The  Firs,  Proper. 


341 


167.  Cone  and  Leaves  of  the  Abies  (jrandis.  of 
two-thirds  the  natural  length.     [Page  340.] 


wood  is  soft,  white,  brittle, 
and  not  durable.  The  growth 
of  this  species  is  more  rapid 
than  that  of  most  of  the  firs. 
It  prefers  a  rich  and  somewhat 
humid  soil,  and  river  flats  are 
particularly  favorable  to  its 
success.  It  is  not  as  liable  to 
suffer  from  late  spring  frosts, 
as  most  other  firs. 

1383.  The   Abies  bracteata 
is  a  tall,  slender,  and  strictly 
pyramidal    tree,    growing   to 

.the  height  of  100  to  150  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  two  feet. 
It  occurs  on  Santa  Lucia 
Mountains,  upon  the  Califor- 
nia coast,  along  a  narrow  belt,  perhaps  a  hundred  miles  in  length,  and 
at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  and  upwards  above  sea  level.  The  long 
bracts  of  the  cones  give  them  a  bristly  appearance,  and  suggest  the 
specific  name.  These  bracts  are,  in  fact,  a  modified  form  of  leaves, 
and  somewhat  resemble  them  in  appearance. 

1384.  We  will  conclude  our  notice  of  the  firs  by  adding  the  most 
important  of  the  European  species,  it  being  convenient,  in  connec- 
tion therewith,  to  present  an  engraving  from  Rossmassler,  illustrating 
the  inflorescence,  germination,  and  foliage  of  the  species. 

1385.  THE  EUROPEAN  SILVER  FIR  (Abies  pectinata).     This  is  an 
important  timber  tree,  and  grows  to  a  large  size  in  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Cevennes,  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  and  the  Vosges,  and  some  fine  forests 
are  found  in  Northern  Italy  and  in  Normandy.    The  timber  is  softer 
and  less  durable  than  that  of  the  pine  and  larch,  and  it  is  much 
used  for   shingles,  cabinet-work,    boat-building,    and  constructions 
generally,  and  is  not  liable  to  warp  or  shrink.     When  young,  the 
tree  is  very  tender,  and  easily  injured  by  frost,  which  it  seldom  es- 
capes   many   years  together;  but  when  it  gets  larger  it  becomes 
hardy  and  thrives  at  high  altitudes.     It  comes  to  a  size  profitable 
for  working  in  about  seventy  years,  but  lives  to  twice  this  age.    The 
Strasburg  turpentine  of  druggists  is  obtained  from  this  tree.     The 


342 


The  Silver  Fir. 


168.  Abiespectinafa:  The  Silver  Fir.  1.  A  twig,  with  staminate  catkins.  2.  The  pis- 
tilate  llowers.  3,  4.  Scales  of  the  p'stilate  flower,  with  the  two  seeds  still  mi- 
nute on  the  inner  side.  5  (and  the  figure  above).  The  seed  scale  separate 
the  two  sides,  us  shown  in  the  preceding  figures.  (>,  7.  Staminate  catkins  as  a 
bud,  and  fully  open,  and  of  twice  the  natural  size.  8.  Anthers.  9. 'Leaf  of 
twice  the  natural  size.  10.  Transverse  section  of  the  leaf,  also  magnified. 
11.  Germ  of  a  young  plant.  12.  Germ-bud,  of  the  latter,  with  the  leaves  re- 
moved, greatly  enlarged. 


The  Larches.  343 

details  of  its  inflorescence,  etc.,  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  en- 
graving. 

THE  LARCH.     (Genus  Larix.) 

1386.  Of  this  there  are  8  species,  native  of  the  North  Temper- 
ate and  Arctic  Zone  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.     We  have 
three  native  species,  of  which  one  grows  in  Canada  and  the  Atlantic 
States,  and  two  upon  the  western  coast.     The  larches  have  decidu- 
ous leaves,  that  are  collected  in  fascicles  of  from  ten  to  twenty  in  a 
group,  and   small  cones,  with  the  bracts  usually  shorter  than  the 
scales.     The  foliage  takes  a  bright  yellow  color  in  autumn  a  little 
before  the  fall  of  the  leaves. 

1387.  THE  TAMARACK*  (Larix  Americana).     This    is   in    some 
regions  called  "  Hackmatack,"  and  in  commerce  in  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick   it   is   sometimes  known  as  "  Juaiper."     The  tamarac 
grows  in  swamps  in  Canada  and  the  Northern   States,  from   Maine 
to  Wisconsin.     It  can  be  cultivated  in  humid  soils,  but  does  not 
thrive  well  upon  dry  grounds.     It  grows  to  the  height  of  thirty  to 
forty  feet,  and  comes  to  largest  development  in  Canada.     Exten- 
sive swamps  are  sometimes  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  this  tree. 

1388.  THE  WESTERN  LARCH  (Larix  occidentalis).     This  is  a  tall 
slender  tree,  with  short,  thick,  and  small  branches,  thin,  light,  and 
yellowish-green   leaves.     It  grows  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
height,  with  a  diameter  of  two  to  three  feet.     It  extends  northward 
in  British  Columbia,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Selkirk  and  Gold  Ranges, 
within  the  limits  of  abundant  rain-fall.     It  is  not  found  on  the 
coast.     The  timber  is  said  to  be  strong  and  durable,  but  coarse. 

1389.  The  Larix  Lyaliii  is  a  little  known  species,  found  growing 
at  high  elevations  upon  the  Cascade  Range  in  Oregon. 

1390.  THE  EUROPEAN  LARCH  (Larix  Europea).     This  tree  has 
been  found  in  Scotland  the  most  profitable  that  can  be  grown.    Al- 
though not  adapted  to  such  valuable  uses  as  the  oak,  it  will  mature 
two  crops  while  the  oak  is  bearing  one.     It  comes  to  maturity  there 
in  about  60  years,  in  which  time  it  has  eight  or  nine  thinnings, 
at  from  5  to   10  years.     An  acre  has  been  known  to  yield  over 
$2,464  at  the  end  of  60  years,  or  over  $40  a  year  above  the  cost  of 
management. 

1391.  In  recent  years  it  has  suffered  from  a   disease   that   has 
rendered  success  less  certain,  and  led  to  the  substitution  of  other 
species  of  conifers,  and  especially  the  Scotch  pine  (Pinus  sylvestris), 


344 


The  Larches. 


fir  (Picea  excelsa),  and  some  of  the  California  species,  especially  the 


Douglas  fir. 


Io92.  Experience  in  the  North-western  States  has  somewhat  dis- 
appointed expectations  with  reference  to  the  European  larch ;  not 
as  to  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  but  as  to  the  durability  of  its 
timber.  As  a  general  rule  the  solidity,  strength,  and  durability 
of  the  wood  in  any  given  species,  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 


169.  Larix  Europea.— European  Larch,  Blossoms,  Leaves,  and  Fruit. 

rapidity  of  its  grown,  and  it  is  not  until  the  light  and  porous  sap- 
wood  has  had  an  opportunity  to  change  by  time  into  the  mature 
and  more  solid  heart-wood,  that  it  acquires  those  qualities  that  give 
it  greatest  value. 

1393.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  larch  of  rapid  growth  might 
in  time  acquire  these  qualities  of  excellence,  but  it  is  hopeless  to 


-   THE 

The.  Larches.  fiUl  *15 

expect  them  at  once.  These  considerations  should  in  no  way  dis- 
courage from  plantation,  as  the  young  wood,  in  dry  situations,  still 
has  great  value,  and  it  may  be  found  suited  for  some  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  injection  that  would  give  it  durability  in  exposed  places. 

1394.  The  larch  in  France,  prospers  «nost  on  northern  or  eastern 
"slopes.     At  greater  elevations  it  was  found  on  southerly  and  west- 
erly aspects,  but  not  of  so  go jd  growth. 

1395.  The  larch  at  high  elevations  is  more  solid  than  on  low  lands, 
although  the  amount  of  ashes  in  the  latter  is  greater.     It  requires 
more  than  double  the  amount  of  alkali  and  of  phosphoric  acid  than 
the  pine,  and  three  times  as  much  as  the  beech. 

1396.  In  planting  the  European  larch,  only  such  trees  should  be 
set  out  as  have  been  once  transplanted.     Their  growth  the  first 
year  or  two  is  very  slow,  and  in  exposed  situations  they  are  liable 
to  suffer  from  the  winds.     As  the  leaves  appear  early,  it  must  be 
planted,  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  protect  the  roots  from  the  air.     They  may  be. 
dipped  to  advantage  in  a  mud  composed  of  a  rich  mellow  s  >il  and 
water  of  about  the  thickness  of  white-wash.     The  tops  should  re- 
main dry,  and  the  roots  damp,  till  they  are  finally  set. 

1397.  Where  the  larch  is  cultivated  in  masses,  and  kept  of  one 
age,  it  is  not  injurious  to  pasture  with  cattle  after  a  certain  time. 
A  woodland  of  this  timber  will  in  some  regions  pasture  one  cow  to, 
a  hectare  (about  2 J  acres)  through  the  summer.     In  a  genial  soil 
and  climate  the  larch  is  aggressive,  and  tends  continually  to  spread 
over  the  neighboring  fields,  especially  on  the  side  opposite  to  that 
of  the  prevailing   winds.     From    this  tendency   to   seeding,    it  is 
easy  to  re-stock  a  forest,  by  leaving  here  and  there  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  seed-trees,  and  by  raking  the  surface  here  and  there  so  that 
the  seeds  can  find  fresh  soil  to  sprout  in. 

1398.  It  is  sometimes  tried  in  Europe  to  get  a  resinous  product 
from  the  larch,  but  it  leads  to  a  very  thin  profit,  at  a  great  loss. 
The  bark  is  in  some  countries  used  for  tanning  leather. 


346 


Planting  in  Kansas. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TREE-PLANTING   IN  KANSAS   AND   NEBRASKA. 

1399.  The  Kansas  State  Horticultural  Society  began,  in  1880,  the 
publication  of  an  annual  Report  upon  Forestry,  as  an  extract  from 
its  general  report  for  the  preceding  year.  In  the  second  of  these 
there  is  given  a  summary  of  replies  to  circulars  from  its  correspond- 
ents,'in  which  they  mention  their  preference  for  kinds  of  trees  that 
have  been  cultivated  with  success.  They  may  be  condensed  as  fol- 
lows, but  to  save  repetition  they  will  be  referred  to  by  numbers, 
Corresponding  with  those  in  the  following  list : 


1400.   Names  of  Trees  that  are  successfully  cultivated  in  Kansas. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
1G. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 


COMMON  NAMES. 

Ailanthus. 
Ash- 
Blue. 
Green. 
White. 
Box     Elder,    or    Ash-leaved 

Maple. 
C  italpa. 
Cherry,  wild. 
Chestnut. 
Coffee-bean. 
Cottonwood. 
Elm- 
Red  (Slippery  Elm). 
White. 
Hackberry. 
Hickory. 
Honey  Locust. 
Locust — 

Black. 
Yellow. 
Maple — 

Soft  (Silver-leaf  Maple). 
Sugar. 


BOTANICAL    NAMES. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa. 
Fraxinus  — 

quadrangulata. 

viridis. 

Americana. 


aceroides. 
Catalpa  speciosa. 
Prunus  serotina. 
Castanea  vesca,  var.  Americana. 
Gymnocladus  Canadensis. 
Populus  monilifera. 
Ulmus-  — 

fulva. 
Americana. 
Cd'is  occidentalis. 
Car  i/a  -  . 
Glcditschia  tricanthos. 
Robinia  — 

pseudo-acacia. 
var.  (?) 
Acer  — 

dasycarpum. 
saccharinum. 


Planting  in  Kansas. 


347 


COMMON  NAMES. 

BOTANICAL   NAMES. 

24.  Mulberry— 

Moms  — 

25.                "  Red. 

rubra. 

26.                   Russian. 

27.                  White. 

alba. 

28.  Oak— 

Quercus  — 

29.          Burr. 

macrocarpa. 

30.  Osage  Orange  (Bois  (Tare). 

Madura  aurantiaca. 

31.  Peach. 

Amygdalus  persica. 

32.  Pecan. 

Canja  olivceformis. 

33.  Pine— 

Pinus  — 

34.           Black,  or  Austrian. 

Austriaca. 

35.           Scotch. 

sijlvestris. 

36.           White. 

strobus. 

37.  Poplar— 

Poputus  — 

38.              Balm  of  Gilead. 

candieans. 

39.              Lombardy. 

dilataia. 

40.              Silver-leaf. 

alba. 

41.  Red  Cedar. 

Juniperus  Vlrginiana. 

42.  Sycamore. 

Platamis  occidentalis. 

43.  Walnut— 

Juglans  — 

44.                Black. 

nigra. 

45.  Willow— 

Salix— 

46.               Gray  or  White. 

alba. 

1401.   Trees  reported  as  grown  successfully  in  the  several  Counties  of 
Kansas,  arranged  in  order  of  preference. 

[Where  two  or  more  series  of  numbers  are  given,  they  show  returns  from  different 

correspondents . 


Allen,  44,  7,17,  30,  5,  42,12,11,22. 

"       44,2,  7,  12,2-2,  6. 
Atchison,  22,  11,  44,  39. 
Barton,  44,  1 1 ,  6,  46 
Butler,  11,  39,  3D,  44,  6,  41,  2,  12, 

4). 
Chautauqua,  11,  43,  39,  6,  22,  5. 

11,  22,  44,  12,  6. 
Cherokee,  44,  11,21,  39,  32. 
Cloud,  11,  6. 
Cowley,  44,  7,  6,  22. 
Crawford,  11,21,43,  7,6,23. 


Davis  44,  6,  45,  22. 

"      44,  22,  11,  6. 

Dickinson,  6,  14,  13,  44,  4,  15,  11. 
Edwards,  11,6,44. 
Ellis,  11,  6,  17,30,  12,44,  8,2. 

"      11,44,6,  1,  17,  7,12,22,2,30. 

"     43,11,6,2,7. 

"     11,44,6,  15,2,  30. 
Elk,  43,  11,  21..  7,  6,39. 
Franklin,  43,  11,21,2,  12,42 
Harper,  ]  1 . 
Harvey,  11,  6,  43,  13,  15,  5,  22,  39. 


348 


Planting  in  Kansas. 


Jackson,  11,6,43,37,46. 
Jefferson,  11,  22,43,  14. 
Jewell,  11,6,  43,  2,22. 
Johnson,  11,  43,  37,  21,  2,  6,  7. 
Kingman,  44,  7,  17,  6,  2,  21. 
Labette,  11,22,  39,43. 
Leaven  worth,  11,  22,  43,  42,  23. 
Lincoln,  11,  6,  5,  13,  14.-44. 
Lyon,  11,  43,  12,  6,  2,  45,  17,  10,  30. 
Marshall,  II,  6,  45,  22,  2,  18,  43,  24, 

16,  28. 
Miami,  11,  22,  14,  44,  7,  23,  5,  6,  41, 

36. 

Mitchell,  17,  11,44,6,  13,  14,  30. 
McPherson,  7,  44,  11,  46,  30,  6. 
Montgomery,  11,  22,  7,  2,  43. 
Morris,  11,  44. 
Ness,  11,  6,  12,  2,43,  10  1. 
Nemeha,  11,22,6,  17,43,  12. 
Neosho,  11,22,  39,  45,  14,  13. 
Ottawa,  1 1 ,  43,  6,  2,  22. 
Pawnee,  1,  17,  6,  11,  44,  12,  46. 


Pottawatomie,  11,  22,  6,  44,  17. 

Pratt,  11,  6,  44. 

Reno,  11,  6,  5,  7,  44,  12,  46. 

Rice,  6,  2,  44,  for  uplands;  11,  44, 

for  lowlands. 

"     43,6,  7,22,19,17,12,11,41,1. 
Rush,  11,  6,  43,  for  lowlands;    11, 

for  uplands. 

Russell,  2,  6,44,  30,22,  11,  7. 
Saline,  11,  6,  44,  5,  19,  17. 
Sedgwick,  11,  19,40,  6,  7. 
Shawnee,  44,  11,  22,  7. 
Surnner,  44,  22,  12,  6,  11. 
.      "         11,  6,  43. 
Wallace,  11,  0,  for  lowlands;  5,  43, 

22,  for  uplands. 
Wabunsee,  11,  6,44,  22,  13. 

11,44,  6,  13,  14,  41,  17, 

2,  7. 

Washington,  11,  6,  43. 
Woodson,  22,  1,  44,  11. 


1402.  It  appears  from  the  above,  that  the  cottonwood  is  found 
successful  in  56  reports  out  of  GO ;    the  walnut,  or  black  walnut 
(probably  intended  to  be  the  same),  in  56;  the  box-elder  in  48;  the 
maples  (probably  the  soft  maples  only)  in  37 ;  the  elms  in  29  ;  the 
ash  in  25 ;  the  catalpa  in  18  ;  the  honey-locust  and  willows  each  in 
13;  the  poplars  (besides  cottonwoods)  in  10;  the  osage  orange  in 
10;  the  ailanthus  in  5;  the  red  cedar  in  4;  the  hackberry,  locust, 
and  sycamore,  each  in  3 ;  the  coffee-bean  tree  and  wild  cherry  each 
in  2 ;  and  the  hickory,  pecan,  mulberry,  oak,  and  white  pine,  each 
in  1. 

1403.  As  first  on  the  list,  we  fin-d  the  cottonwood  in  37  reports; 
the  walnut  or  black-walnut  in  12;  the  soft  maple  and  the  box-elder 
each  in  2,  and  the  ailanthus,  ash,  catalpa,  and  honey-locust  each 
in  1. 

1404.  In  1878,  a  list  of  preferences  was  published  by  this  same 
society,  in  which  the  cottonwood   is  mentioned  by  40  correspond- 
ents ;  black-walnut  by  33;  box-elder  by  30;  white-maple  by  29  ; 
white  and  red  elm  by  22  ;  oaks  and  catalpa  by  14 ;  mulberry  by  11 ; 


Planting  in  Kansas.  349 

ailanthus  by  9,  and  the  Lombardy  and  abele  poplars  and  hackberry 
each  7. 

1405.  Of  evergreens,  30  had  succeeded  with  the  red  cedar ;  26 
with  the  black  Austrian  pine  ;  22  with  Scotch  pine ;  16  with  white 
pine ;   10  with  Norway  spruce,  and  6  with  arbor-vitse. 

1406.  The  "Forestry  Manual"  of  this  society,  published  in  1882, 
reports  the  black- walnut  as  cultivated  successfully  in  57  counties  ; 
the  catalpa  in  45  ;  the  osage  orange  in  39  ;  the  honey-locust  in  34, 
and  the  mulberry  in  30. 

1407.  The  experience  of  planters  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska  has 
been  hitherto  adverse  1o  the  cultivation  of  the  beech,  birch,  chest- 
nut, hard  or  sugar-maple,  and  most  of  the  conifers.     The  white  wil- 
low, that  succeeds  admirably  further  north,  in  Iowa  and  Minne- 
sota, and  in  states  further  east,  does  not  succeed  in  many  parts  of 
Kansas.     It  has  suffered  badly  from  the  locusts. 

Propagation  from  Cuttings  and  Native  Seedlings. 

1408.  The  cottonwoods  and  other  poplars  were  almost  invariably 
reported  as  easy  to  propagate  by  cuttings.     The  willows,  and  less 
frequently  the  catalpa,  are  also  mentioned  as  easy  to  propagate  in 
this  manner. 

1409.  As  to  the  time  of  procuring  cuttings,  opinions  varied,  the 
greater  number  advising  that  they  should  be  cut  late  in  fall  or  early 
in  winter,  when  the  wood  was  not  frozen,  and  that  they  should  be 
buried  below  the  reach  of  frost,  to  be  set  as  soon  as  possible  upon 
ground  previously  prepared,  in  the  spring.     When  thus  preserved  the 
lower  end  would  have  a  callus  just  ready  to  put  forth  roots,  and 
they  would  get  an  early  start.     The  last  season's  growth  should  be 
taken,  and  in  pieces  ten  inches  or  a  foot  in  length.     They  were  found 
to  do  best  when  set  deep  (some  mentioned  a  sloping  position  as  best), 
but  so  that  only  a  small  part— one  or  two  buds — should  be  above 
the  ground.     The  earth  should  be  pressed  down  firmly  upon  them 
at  the  time  of  setting. 

1410.  Seedlings,  plowed  up  along  the  sand-bars  of  rivers,  should 
be  gathered  in  the   fall,  tied   in   bundles,  and   buried  upright  in 
trenches  until  spring.     They  are  generally  more  sure  to  get  a  start 
than  cuttings.     If  cut  back  to  near  the  ground  when  set  they  will 
often  take   a  more  vigorous  growth.     The  soil  should  be  firmly 
pressed  down  around  them  at  the  time  of  planting,  as  in  the  case  of 


350  Planting  in  Kansas. 

» 

cuttings.  The  lowlands  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  rather  more 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  timber  than  the  uplands,  although  the 
cotton  wood,  box-elder,  soft  maple,  walnut,  catalpa,  osage  orange, 
Lombardy  poplar,  and  other  trees  are  cultivated  upon  the  latter 
with  success,  when  well  cared  for. 

1411.  The  ailauthus  has  been  found  well  adapted  for  resisting  the 
drouth  in  Kansas  as  far  west  as  the  100th  meridian,  and  it  is  read- 
ily reproduced  from  sprouts  and  cuttings  from  the  roots. 

Distance  between  Trees. 

1312.  It  is  almost  the  universal  experience  of  correspondents,  that 
trees  do  best  when  planted  close,  and  generally  in  rows  4  feet  apart 
and  three  or  four  feet  between.  If  at  equal  distances  each  way  and 
set  upon  land  marked  both  ways,  they  can  be  cultivated  by  cross- 
plowing  very  conveniently.  In  planting  it  is  well  to  put  in  several 
seeds,  and  when  cultivating  the  plants  afterwards,  pull  up  all  but 
one,  leaving  the  most  thrifty.  The  plants  thus  taken  out  may  be 
lifted  with  the  soil  still  upon  the  roots,  and  set  into  vacant  places. 

1413.  The  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  with  a  cultivator,  by  pre- 
venting the  surface  from  becoming  packed  or  crusted  over,  is  found 
most  beneficial  in  a  dry  time,  and  should  not  be  omitted,  whether 
there  are  weeds  to  kill  or  not. 

Effect  of  Shelter-Belts. 

1414.  With  scarcely  an  exception,  the  opinion  was  expressed  by 
correspondents  of  the  Kansas  Society,  that  trees  planted  in  belts 
in  that  state  had  afforded  protection  to  fields  of  grain,  or  orchards, 
gardens,  and  stock-yards.     As  to  the  width  at  which  they  should  be 
planted,  opinions  varied  from  four  or  five  to  twenty  or  thirty  rods. 
As  a  screen  around  buildings,  the  red  cedar  was  much  recommended, 
and  for  success  the  plants  should  be  started  from  seeds  in  seed-beds, 
and  be  set  when  small.     It  was  not  fully  settled  by  experience  as 
to  whether  a  shelter-belt  should  run  east  and  west,  or  north  and 
south,  in  order  to  afford  the  most  protection.     This  would  probably 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  general  slope  of  the  surface. 

1415.  Since   trees   have   been   planted  in  groves  in  the  prairie 
region,  it  is  noticed  that  insectivorous  birds  have  become  more  com- 
mon.    They  should  be  protected  by  a  law  supported  by  strong  pub- 
lic sentiment. 


x  Planting  in  Kansas.  351» 

The  Locust-Tree  in  Central  Kansas. 

1416.  A  correspondent  in  Central  Kansas,1  reports  to  the  State 
Horticultural  Society  unexpected  success  in  planting  the  black  lo- 
cust.    It  had  escaped  the  borers,  and  had  lived  through  severe 
drouth.     Trees  planted  in  1873  were  in  eight  years  large  enough 
for  two  fence-posts,  and  produced  an  abundance  of  material  for  vine- 
stakes  and  other  uses.     He  estimates  that  2,000  trees  can  be  grown 
on  an  acre,  and  that  by  extreme  care  and  cultivation  they  would  in 
seven  years  produce  4,000  posts  worth  at  20  cents  each  the  sum  of 
88CO.     Allowing  a  broad  margin  for  casualties,  there  would  still  be 
a  strong  motive  for  planting  this  tree,  should  it  hereafter  be  found 
that  it  is  not  there  liable  to  the  insect  injuries  that  have  proved  so 
disastrous  in  Illinois,  or  if   more  effectual   means  for  preventing 
these  injuries  should  be  hereafter  discovered. 

Gathering  and  Preservation  of  Seeds. 

1417.  Kuts  with   a   hard   shell   like  the   black-walnut  must  be 
gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  and  may  generally  be  planted  the  same 
fall.     It  is  commonly  preferred,  however,  to  spread  them  upon  the 
ground,  with  a  light  covering  of  litter  and  soil,  or  in  a  box  mixed 
with  earth  and  moistened  from  time  to  time.     They  should  be  ex- 
posed to  frost,  and  in  the  spring  slwuld  be  planted  for  permanence,  as 
they  will  not  bear  transplanting. 

1418.  We  advise  that  generally  every  alternate  tree  be  a  walnut, 
and  the  remainder  a  cottonwood,  white  willow,  or  box-elder,  where 
it  is  intended  that  a  fine,  h  gh,  and  regularly  formed  grove  of  the 
walnut  is  finally  desired.     The  nurses  may  be  taken  out  as  the  trees 
begin  to  crowd  one  another.     A  little  mixture  of  other  kinds,  such 
as  the  ash,  oak,  catalpa,  elm,  and  perhaps  of  red  cedar  might  be 
desirable,  and  of  more  profit  than  all  of  one  kind. 

1419.  Seeds  of  the  Osage  orange,  ash,  box-elder,  sycamore,  ca- 
talja,  and  honey  locust  may  be  put  away  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and 
k^pt  till  spring.     They  generally  do  best  when  planted  early.     In 
K  ansas   they  do   best   as   forest   trees  when   planted  where   th<  y 
are  to  grow.     The  seeds  of  the  honey  locust  must  be  scalded  before 
planting. 

1 J.  B.  Scblichtcr,  of  Sterling,  Ilice  Co. 


352  Planting  in  Kansas. 

Preparation  of  the  Ground. 

1420.  This  is  uniformly  necessary  in  a  prairie  country,  and  can 
best  be  done  by  thoroughly  plowing  and  harrowing,  after  raising 
one  or  two  crops  of  grain.     For  early  planting  or  setting  of  cut- 
tings or  young  seedlings  pulled  up  along  the  sand-bars  of  rivers,  the 
plowing  may  best  be  done  the  fall  before,  and  the  markings  when 
ready  to  plant  or  set. 

1421.  The  weeds  must  be  kept  down  by  passing  between  the  rows 
with  a  cultivator,  and  afterward  by  hoeing,  as  with  corn.     This 
should  be  done  only  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  (never  later  than  the 
middle  of  July),  and  should  be  repeated  three  or  four  years,  until 
the  ground  is  well  shaded,    after  which  the  trees  will  need  only 
thinning  out  from  time  to  time,  and  protection  from  cattle  and  from 
fires.     It  is  not  until  the  trees  get  so  large  that  their  foliage  is  above 
the  reach  of  stock,  that  cattle  may  be  admitted  safely  to  a  planta- 
tion. 

1422.  The  rubbish  from  fallen  leaves,  etc.,  should  always  be  left 
to  decay  on  the  ground.     A  bed  of  leaves  tends  to  hinder  evapora- 
tion from  the  soil,  and  to  keep  the  ground  moist  longer  after  a  rain. 

1423.  In  setting  any  of  the   evergreens,   we  would   decidedly 
recommend  their  purchase  from  nurseries,  as  they  are  difficult  to  get 
started  from  the  seed  without  careful  management.     They  will  be 
best  likely  to  succeed  where  sheltered  in  the  south  side  by  a  grove 
or  hedge.     They  will  also  need  a  heavy  mulching  in  dry  seasons. 

Tree-culture  in  Places  well  advanced  upon  ike  Plains. 

1424.  The  plantation  of  cottonwoods  for  temporary  use,  ma^  some- 
times be  practiced  in  places  well  advance  upon  the  plains,  where  in 
very  dry  seasons  they  may  sometimes  fail  when  six  or  eight  inches  in 
diameter.     Such  failures  may  cause  disappointment,  but  are  by  no 
means  a  total  loss.     The  wood  is  still  available  for  firewood,  and  the 
trees  while  they  lived,  proved  a  shelter  to  fields  and  orchards,  and 
perhaps  may  have  protected  the  slower  growing  kinds  that  survived 
.the  drouth.     This  should  not  discourage  from  renewed  attempts  in 
planting,  with  the  view  of  securing  these  temporary  benefits,  even 
if  the  trees  grow  no  larger  than  poles.     In  such  case,  it  would 
be  worth  while  to  plant  a  certain  portion  of  land  every  year,  ex- 
pecting perhaps  only  a  crop  of  firewood  and  poles.     They  will  be 


Planting  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  353  • 

worth  what  they  cost,  although  it  might  not  be  expected  that  they 
would  become  larger  trtes. 

1425.  In  river  valleys  upon  the  plains,  where  the  water  disap- 
pears wholly  from  the  surface  in  summer,  and  the  channels  appear 
to  be  utterly  arid,  the  water  may  still,  in  many  places,  be  found  by 
digging  to  a  distance  not  greater  than  that  which  may  be  reached 
by  the  roots  of  trees. 

1426.  The  black  walnut  appears  to  be  the  best  adapted  to  these 
situations,  and  although  not  so  rapid  in  growth  as  some  other  trees,  it 
makes  a  success  where  the  sub-soil  is  not  too  firm  and  moisture  is 
within  reach.     In  such  localities,  transplanting  is  impossible,  and 
the  nuts  previously  sprouted  must  be  planted  where  the  trees  are  to 
grow. 

1427.  The  general  statements  in  this  chapter,  drawn  chiefly  from 
the  experience  of  Kansas,  will  apply,  with  some  modification,  to 
Nebraska.     The  soil  is  very  nearly  the  same ;  in  both  States  the 
surface  rises  at  about  the  same  grade  as  we  go  west,  and  the  differ- 
ence in  latitude  would  scarcely  be  felt,  except  in  a  very  few  species. 
The  Osage-orange  would  be  found  less  hardy  in  Nebraska,  and  the 
white  willow  probably  more  thrifty. 

1428.  In  both  States,  we  can  not  too  strongly  urge  the  importance 
of  the  cottonwoods  and  other  rapidly  growing  kinds  as  nurses  for 
the  more  valuable,  which  can  not  be  started  without  shelter  when 
young.     It  is  also  found  that  fall  planting  has  many  advantages 
not  formerly  realized,  and  in  some  situations  a  decided  preference. 
It  is  an  excellent  practice,  in  new  and  untried  locations,  to  multiply 
experiments  in  the  small  way,  before  investing  largely  in  any  thing 
in  the  way  of  tree-planting.     These  experiments  may  apply  to  dif- 
ferent species — to  different  times  and  methods  of  sowing  or  plant- 
ing— different  soils,  and  various  modes  of  management.     By  these 
means  alone  can  one  depend  upon  the  particular  course  best  adapted 
to  his  location,  and  the  manner  of  obtaining  the  best  results. 


354       Recent  Decision  under  the  Timber- Cult  are  Act. 


RECENT  DECISION  UNDER  THE  TIMBER-CUL- 
TURE ACT. 

Since  printing  Chapter  IX.,  in  this  work  (pages  91  to  96),  the 
following  decisions  have  been  made  : 

"In  timber-culture  entry,  there  is  no  restriction  upon  an  entry- 
man  as  to  the  time  when  the  work  must  be  done,  provided  it  is 
done  within  the  time  required  by  law.  The  work  can  be  done  by 
the  en  try  man,  his  agent,  or  his  vendor. 

"  If  one  purchase  land  which  has  been  in  whole  or  in  part  broken, 
planted,  or  cultivated  by  another,  the  spirit  of  the  law  is  as  fully 
met  as  if  he  had  personally  performed  the  work." 


INDEX. 


Abele  poplar,  284,  349. 
Abies  (genus),  41,  304,  338. 

amabilis,  381). 

bracteata,  341. 

con  color,  339. 

Douglasii,  337. 

Fraserii,  338. 

grand!?,  339.  340,  341. 

magniliea,  339. 

Menziesii,  334. 

n  obi  I  is,  340 

pectinata,  42,  151,  341,  342. 

sulmlpiua,  339. 

\V  ilhamsoniana,  336. 

Abietinea.  304,  31 6. 
Absolute  humidity,  12,  15. 
Absorption  by  vital  process,  194. 
Acacia  (genus),  259. 

dealbata.  259. 

Gregg ii,  259. 

homalophylla,  260. 

melanoxyU>n,2GO. 

pycnantba.  259. 

Acer  (genus),  234,  346. 

compestre,  seed  of,  32. 

circinatum,  239. 

dasycarpuni,  237,  346. 

glabrum,  239. 

macrophyllum,  238. 

negundo,  239. 

nigrum,  237. 

Pennsylvanieum.  238. 

pseudo- platan  us,  33,  146. 

rubrum,  146,  238. 

saccharinum,  146,  236,346. 

spicatum,  238. 

tartaricum,  as  a  hedge  plant, 

146. 

Acetates,  prepared  from  smoke,  153. 

A  corn- worms,  180. 

Acorns,  mode  of  keeping,  34. 

Acre,  number  of  trees  on  an,  50. 

Acres  of  forest  in  European  coun- 
tries, 83. 

Act'mostrobus,  304. 

Adaptation  of  species  to  conditions,  90 

Addison,  quotation  from,  114. 


Adornment,  planting  for,  115. 
JEseulus  (genus),  253. 

California,  255,  256. 

flava,  255. 

glabra,  254. 

hippoce?tanam,  254. 

parviflora,  255. 

Age  for  transplanting.  43. 

Agency   of    birds    and    animals    in 

planting,  31. 

Airgsbaeh,  school  of  Forestry  at,  107 
Ailantlms  irlandulosa,  93,  2»8,  346. 
Air,  expansion  and  contraction  of,  15, 

exposure  of  roots  to.  43. 

Alabama,  pine  belt  in,  200. 

dving  ott'  of  chestnut  trees  in, 

223. " 

Albumen  of  seeds,  35. 
Alder,  84,  210,  231. 
blossoms  of,  30. 

percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

Aleppo  pine,  period  of  full  growth, 

105. 

Aljjorobis  glandtilosa,  129,  130,  131. 
Alkalies  in  wood,  152. 
Alkaline  soils,  6. 
Alnus  (genus),  231. 

glutinosa.  231,  232. 

incana,  233. 

oblongifolia,  233. 

Oregon  a,  233. 

rhombi folia,  233. 

rubra,  233. 

Alps,  timber-line  on,  25. 
Alsace,  chestnut  grown  in,  222. 
Alternations  in  forest  growth,  90. 
Alucitae,   or   feather-winged    moths, 

179. 

Alum,  preserving  properties  of,  193. 
Amelanchier  (genus),  264. 

alni folia,  264. 

Canadensis,  146,  264. 

Aments,  flowers  so  called,  29. 
American  alder,  233. 

aspen,  284. 

white  oak,  216. 

yew,  314. 

355 


356 


Index. 


American?,  instability  of,  116. 
Amherst  Agrieul.  Col.,  experiments 

at,  78. 

Amygdalus  Persica  in  Kansas,  347. 
Animate,  agency  of  in  planting,  31,  32. 
Annular  budding,  46. 
Antiseptic  processes,  187. 
Ant-lion,  174. 
Ants,  179. 
A  pelt  cited,  194. 
Apples  (genus  Pirus),  260. 
Apple  trees,  93,  121.  146. 
Aqueous  vapor  in  atmosphere,  12. 
Araucarieae,  41,  304,  316. 
Arboriculture  defined,  1. 
Arbor  days,  62. 

Arboretums,  should  be  labeled,  125. 
Arbor-vitse,  84.  303,  304,  305. 

iriant,  306. 

'in  Kansas,  349. 

Arbors  for  sheltering  seed-beds,  40. 
Arbutus  Menziesii,  289. 
Arcachon,  dunes  of,  109. 
Arctostaphylos,  glauca,  289. 

pun  gens,  289. 

Argillaceous  soils,  6. 

Arizona,  privileges  of  citizens  of,  95. 

white  oak,  213. 

Arrow-wood,  269,  298. 
Aitemisia  tridentata,  7. 
Arthrotaxis,  vitality  of  seed?  of,  41. 
Aschaffenburg,   school    of    Forestry 

at,  108. 
Ash,  percentage  of  in  burned  woods, 

152. 
Ash  (trees),  270,  346,  348. 

grown  as  coppices,  98. 

grown  as  high  forests,  102. 

leaved  maple,  93,  239. 

period  of  full  growth,  105. 

white,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

Asia  Minor,  timber  of,  84. 

valonia  from.  206. 

Asimina  triloba,  289. 
Aspect,  or  direction  of  slope,  9. 
Aspen,  quaking,  85,  289. 
Associations,    Village-improvement, 

122. 
Atlantic  States,  timber  of,  84. 

range  of  humidity  in,  15. 

Atlas-cedar,  304. 
Atmometer,  Lament's,  19. 
Atmosphere,  composition  of,  11. 
Audobon's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  26. 
Auricle-leaved  magnolia,  296. 
Austria,  forest  administration  in,  106. 


Austria,  forests  in,  83. 
Austrian  pine  in  Kansas,  349. 
Autumnal  colors,  79,  234. 

layer,  so  called,  69. 

sowing,  41. 

Avalanches  of  snow,  25. 
Avenues  of  approach,  117. 
Back-firing  to  stop  forest  fires,  158. 
Bacteria,  a  cause  of  decay,  188. 
Baden-Powell,  H.  B  ,  cited,  27. 
Bald-cypress,  84,  304,  310. 
Baliveau,  reserves  so  called,  101. 
Ball   of    earth,   freezing  of  around 

roots,  54. 

Balm-of-Gilead  poplar,  288. 
Balsam-fir,  338. 

insects  injurious  to,  187. 

Balsam-spruce,  339. 

Bamboo  shells,  transplanting  in,  54. 

Banks,  consolidation  of,  57,^231,  283. 

Bank's  pine,  329. 

Barberry,  not  found  in  California,  88. 

Bark-boring    insects,    163,    164,    165, 

166,    168,   170,  171,  172,  180,   182, 

185,  187. 

Bark,  grafting  of,  46. 
if  loosened,  kills  the  wood  un- 
der it,  144. 

lice,  174. 

of  root?,  76. 

of  trunk  and  branches,  67,  72,  73. 

removal  of,  in  part,  62. 

tanniiiir,  325. 

Barney,  E.  E.,  on  Catalpa,  291. 
Barrens  of  \Vest,  cause  of,  87. 
Barren  scrub-oak,  213. 
Barres,  school  of  guards  at,  108. 

plantation  of  pines  at,  320. 

Barriers  for  checking  torrents,  110. 

Bartram  oak,  213. 

Basins   of    water-supply  should    be 

wooded,  18. 

Baskets,  transplanting  in,  54. 
Basket-willow,  280,  281. 
Bass  wood  family,  88,  240. 

grows  from  sprouts.  98. 

insects  injurious  to,  184. 

Beach-grass,  planted  on  dunes,  109. 
Bear-oak,  213. 
Bear-river  pine.  337. 
Beaver-meadows,  cause  of  overflow, 

22. 

Beaver-tree,  295. 
Bedford-willow,  279. 
Beech  (genus  Tagus],  89,  93, 146,  225, 

349. 


Index. 


357 


Beecli,  classification  of,  210. 

does  not  reproduce  from  sprouts, 

98. 

grown  as  high-forests,  102. 

insects  injurious  t'.»  184. 

leaf,  structure  of,  64,  05. 

northern  range  of,  89. 

percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

period  of"  lull  growth,  105. 

sports  of,  227. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

wood,  structure  of,  08. 

Bees,  179. 

agency  of  in  fertilizing  blos- 
soms, 29. 

Beetles,  general  notice  of,  169. 

Behlen,  Stephen,  on  effect  <>l  moon's 
age  in  cutting  timher,  138. 

Belgium,  lorests  in,  83. 

Benthatn  &  Hooker,  classification  of 
eon  hers  by,  303. 

Benzoin,  not  found  in  California,  89. 

Bergentz,  school  of  Forestry  at,  107. 

Bermuda-grass,  planted  on  dunes,109. 

Bethel  1  process  of  wood-preservation, 
194. 

Betula  (genus),  146,  228. 

alba,  140.229. 

excelsa,  230. 

glandulosa,  230. 

Tenta.  140,  230. 

nig ni,  230. 

occidental  is,  230. 

papyracea,  230. 

Betulaj.  2*JO. 

Bignonia  catalpa  (see  Catalpa),  290. 

Birch  (genus  Betula},  84,  89,  93,  210, 
228,  349. 

black,  102,  146. 

grown  in  high-forests,  102. 

insects  injurious  to,  184. 

northern  limit  of,  89. 

percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

period  of  full  growth,  105. 

sap-pressure  in.  79. 

seeds,  described,  31. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

white,  146,  229. 

Birds,  agencv  of  in  planting.  31. 

encouraged  by  shelter-belts,  350. 

insectivorous,  167. 

must  be  kept  from  pine-seed- 
beds, 167. 

Birdseye  maple,  237. 
Bitter-hickory,  279. 
Black  ash,  272. 


Black  birch,  230. 

( bogus  fusca),  228. 

cherry,  262. 

drink,  made   from  a  holly  (?), 

293. 

fir,  337. 

-jack  oak,  213,  214. 

succeeds  pine,  90. 

locust,  under  timber-claim  act, 

93. 

maple,  237. 

oaks,  211,  214. 

pine,  325. 

spruce,  332,  333,  334. 

walnut,  93,  146,  275,  276,  348, 

319. 

insects  injurious  to,  182. 

on  the  plains,  353. 

Blackwood,  260. 

Blizzards,  winter  storms  so  called,  22. 

Blossom?,  essential  parts  of,  28. 

Blue  ash,  272. 

beech,  233. 

berries,  not  found  in  California, 

88. 

Rooky  Mountain  spruce,  334. 

Bohl,  cited',  194. 

Bombyces,  or  spinning  moths,  176. 

Bombyx  neustria,  176. 

pini,  170. 

processionea,  162. 

Borax,  preserving  properties  of,  193. 

Borers,  locust,  257. 

(See  Bark  borers;  "Wood  bor- 
ers.) 

Bore-spade,  38,  53. 

Bostrichus,'lOO,  107.  171,  172,  187. 

Botany,  province  of,  3. 

Boucherie,  preserving  process  of, 
194,  195. 

Boundary  street  in  parks,  124. 

Bowlders,  how  concealed  by  plant- 
ing, 118. 

Box -"elder,  84,  93. 

(genus  Ntgundo),  239. 

in  Kansas,  340,  348,  350. 

range  of,  87. 

sugar  from,  240.  , 

Boxes,  transplanting  from,  54. 
Bracing  of  trees  in  planting,  55. 
Brakes,  K.  It.,  made  of  willow,  280. 
Brambles,  clearing  out  of,  104. 
Branches,  growth  of.  74. 

mode  of  cutting  off,  59. 

Bread,  from  chestnuts,  222. 
Breaking  of  prairie  soils,  8. 


358 


Index. 


Breant.  apparatus  of,  191. 

Breathing-pores  in  insects,  65. 

Bremontier,  N.,  planting  of  dunes 
by,  109. 

Brewer,  Prof.  W.  H.,  oited;  85. 

Brewer's  oak,  213. 

Bridger's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  25. 

Broadcast  sowing,  37. 

Broillard,  cited,  222. 

Broom-hickory,  275. 

Bryant,  Arthur,  cited,  285. 

Bucbaria,  recent  injuries  from  clear- 
ing in,  26 

Buckeyes,  84,  253,  254,  255. 

Buckthorn,  129,  296. 

Buds,  bow  formed,  63. 

when  formed  on  roots,  77. 

Buddin<r,  process  of,  3.  46. 

Buffulo-berry,  129,  130,  131,  298, 

Bull,  Marcus,  experiments  of,  139, 
145,  146. 

Bull-pine,  325. 

Bunch-gra-ses  of  plains,  88. 

Bupestridse,  or  saw-horned  beetles, 
169. 

Burgundy  pitch, '204. 

Buried  cedar,  86,  306. 

Burls,  ash,  271. 

black-walnut,  276. 

walnut,  76. 

Burnett,  process  for  preserving  wood, 

196. 

Burning-bush,  292. 
Burning  of  coal-pits,  147-149. 
Burr-oak.  213. 
Bush,  definition  of,  2. 
Butterflies,  174. 
Butternut,  84,  89,  93,  146,  277. 
Bulton-bush,  269. 
Button  wood,  93,  251. 
Calamagrostis  arenariaon  dunes,  109. 
Calcareous  soils,  6. 
California  black-oak,  214. 

box-elder,  240. 

chestnut-oak,  214,  218. 

eucalyptus  in,  265. 

forest-fl  >ra  of,  88. 

injuries  from  clearing  in,  28. 

juniper,  309. 

—  laurel,  298. 

live-oak,  214. 

nutmeg,  304,  315. 

peculiarities  of  fiora  of,  88. 

sale  of  timber  lands  in,  95. 

white-cedar,  128,  303,  304. 

white-oak,  21 3.. 


Callitris,  41,  304. 

quadrivalvis,  76. 

Calosoma,  a  carnivorous  insect,  162. 
Cambiiun  layer,  67. 
Camel-cricket,    preys    on    other    in- 
sects, 173. 
Canada  balsam,  203,  339. 

black  walnut  in,  277. 

button  wood  in,  252. 

chestnut  in,  219.  220. 

forest-trees  in,  89. 

Kentucky  coflee-tree  in,  258. 

maple-leaf  the  emblem  of,  236. 

pitch,  204. 

remarkable  size  of  pine  in,  316. 

timber  resources  of,  84.  89. 

white  pine  region  in,  320. 

Canals,  supply  of  water  for,  18. 
Canker-worms.  177,  180. 

Canoe- birch,  230. 

Cape  Cod,  pine  plantations  on,  328, 

;>>2. 

Capital,  investment  of  in  forests,  79, 

80. 

Capricorn-beetles,  166,  173. 
Caprifoliacese,  269. 
Caragana  arborescens,  129,  130,  131, 

136. 

Carbon  in  wood,  source  of,  11,  65. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  in  atmosphere,  11. 
Carboniferous  period,  gases  in,  11. 
Carev's  preserving  process.  196. 
Carlsruhe,    school    of    .Forestry    at, 

108. 

Carnivorous  insects.  162,  165,  187. 
Carpenter-moth,  180. 
Carpintis  (genus),  2o3. 

Americana,  146,  233. 

-  betulus,  32,  234,  235. 

Carriere,  <>n  vitality  of  seeds,  41. 
Carving,  wood  must  be  seasoned  for, 

142. 
Carya  alba,  146.  275. 

amara,  274. 

aquatica.  275. 

— —  glabra,  275. 

olivaMbrmis.  274,  347. 

porcina,  146,  275. 

tomentosa,  275,  346. 

Cascade  range,  timber-li_ie  on,  25. 
Case,   Leonard,  planting    begun  by, 

123. 

Caspian -willow,  280,  281. 
Castagno  di  Cento  Cavalli,  221. 
Castanea  pumila,  224. 
vesca,  146,  219,  220,  221,  346. 


Index. 


359 


Castanopsis  chrysophylln,  224. 
Catalpa  bignonuidefi,  84,  88,290. 

co rdi folia.  290.' 

speciosa,  290,  346. 

syringaefolia,  290. 

iii  Kansas,  346,  348,  349,  350. 

in  ornamental  planting,  121. 

Catesby's  oak,  214. 

Catkins,  pedant  tree  blossom?,  29. 

Cato,  cited,  138. 

Cecidomya  salicina  (on  willows),  282. 

Cecidom  vdiadae.  1 79. 

Cedar,  buried,  86,  30G. 

cutting  off  bv  selection,  96. 

of  Lebanon,  304,  316. 

oil,  204. 

pine,  329. 

red,  93,  308. 

Cedars,  differences  in  leaves  of,  60. 
Cednw  (cedar  of  Lebanon),  304,  316. 
Cellular  tissue  of  wood,  67. 
Cellulose,  71. 
Celii.s  (genus).  250. 

occidentalis,  150,  346. 

orientalis,  250. 

Cemeteries,  planting  in,  126. 
Cephaianthus,  occidentalis,  269. 
Cephalotaxis,  vitality  of  seeds,  41. 
Cerambycidese.  notice  of,  173. 
Cerambyx  careharias,  173. 

heros  (wood  bored  by),  165,  166. 

Ceras.sus.     (See  Prunus.) 
Cercis  Canadensis,  259. 

siliquastrum,  259. 

Cercocarpus  ledifolius,  291. 
Changes  in  forest  growths,  90. 
Charcoal,  144,  147. 

absorbing  power  of,  147. 

chief  uses  of,  147. 

percentage  cf  to  wood,  146,  167. 

physical  properties  of,  147. 

red,  153. 

used  as  land-marks,  145. 

value  of  in  different  woods,  146. 

weight  of,  139. 

Charring     promotes     durability     of 

wood,  189. 
Charter-Oak,   historical    interest   of, 

115. 

Chemical  process  for  wood  pulp,  206. 
Chemistry,  relation  to  Forestry,  1. 
Cherries  (genus  Prunus},  262. 
Cherry-birch,  93,  230. 
Cherry,  in  Kansas,  146,  346,  348. 
Chestnut,  89,  146,  219,  220,  221,  346, 

349. 


Chestnut,  as  food,  222. 

classification  of,  210. 

disease  of  roots  of,  78. 

dying  off  of,  223. 

extract  of,  223. 

grows  from  sprouts,  98. 

insects  injurious  to.  182. 

oak,  93,  212,  214.  ' 

California,  218. 

period  of  full  growth,  105. 

white-oak,  heating  qualities  of, 

146. 

wood  for  coopers'  use,  223. 

Chickasaw  plum,  262. 
China,  timber  of,  84. 
Chinese  cedar,  for  hedges,  128. 
Chinquapin,  224. 

oak,  212. 

Chips  of  elm,  with  buds,  will  grow, 

40. 

Chisels.  pruning,  60. 
Chlorophyll,  64~  65. 
Chrysobothris  femorata,  183. 
Cicida  septemdecem,  180. 
Cinchonas,  transplanting  of,  54. 
Citizens  of  certain  states,  rights  of, 

95. 
City-of-Elms,  New  Haven  so-called, 

123. 

City  parks,  planting  of,  123. 
Cladrastis  tinctoria,  260. 
Clammy  locust,  258. 
Clark,    VV.  S.,   experiments    bv,    78, 

193,  198. 
Classification  of  oaks,  212. 

of  pines,  318. 

Clearing,  effects  of,  22,  26. 

Clethra,  not  found  in  California,  88. 

Cleveland,    O.,   called    the    "  Forest 

City,"  123. 

Cliff-dwe. lings  of  New  Mexico,  26. 
Climate,  definition  of,  10. 
Climatic  changes  affect   insect   life, 

167. 

Close  planting,  necessity  of,  50. 
Clouds,  formation  of,  16,  17. 
prevent  the  formation  of  dew, 

16. 

Coal-pits,  construction  of,  147-149. 
Coal-tar,    application  to  wounds   in 

trees,  101. 

preservation  by  aid  of,  189,  190. 

Coast  region  of  Southern  Slates,  86. 

Cockroaches,  173. 

Coffee-tree  (genus  Gymnocladus),  88, 

258,  346,  348. 


360 


Index. 


Coffee-tree,  how  transplanted,  54. 
Cold,  forests  killed  by,  23. 
Coleoptera,  general  notice  of,  169. 
College-class  trees,  114. 

parks,  125. 

Colonial  supplies  of  timber,  82. 
Color,  given  by  absorption,  195. 

of  soil,  ett'ect  of,  7. 

Colors,  autumnal,  79,  234. 

of  wood,  causes  of  difference, 

144. 

Colorado,  cliff-dwellings  in,  27. 
growth  of    wood   on    irrigated 

lands  in,  70. 
injuries  that  must  result  from 

clearings  in,  28. 

privilege  of  citizens  of,  95. 

timber-line  in,  26. 

Columella,  cited,  138. 
Commemorative  planting,  115. 
Commercial   facilities   for  supply  of 

timber;  82. 

Common  names  of  trees  uncertain,  4. 

Compost  for  seed-beds,  40. 

Condensation,  effect  of,  16. 

Co ni ferae,  an  example  of  u  nat.  order, 
3. 

Coniferin,  how  prepared,  204. 

Conifers,  classification  of,  303. 

decay  of  in  mountains,  88. 

general  notice  of,  299. 

grafting  of,  302. 

immense  size  of  on  Pacific 

coast,  89. 

in  JSfew  England,  86. 

in  Uocky  Mountain  Region,  87, 

88. 

may  be  planted  closely,  50. 

of  Pacific  coast,  24,  89. 

particularly  liable  to  insect  rav- 
ages, 163. 

peculiarity  of  leaves  of,  65. 

planting  of,  303. 

quality  of  wood  of,  71. 

resinous  products  of,  199. 

seeds   have  several  cotyledons, 

35. 

soils  suitable  to,  302. 

structure  of  wood  of,  72. 

suitable  for  screens,  128. 

symmetry  of  growth,  75. 

taken  from  native  forest,  51. 

Coniferous  trees,  insects  injurious  to, 
185. 

woods,  injection  of,  192. 

peeling  of,  137. 


Coniferous  woods,  seasoning  of,  140. 
Connecticut,  sumac  gathered  in,  210. 
Constantinople,  School  of  Forestry  in, 

108. 
Contests   of    timber-culture    claims, 

94. 

Contorted  grain  of  wood,  76. 
Contraction  from  cooling,  15. 
Contrasts  of  timber  growth,  84. 

of  abundance  and  scarcity,  89. 

Control  of  forest  fires,  158. 
Convolvulus,  troublesome  to  willows, 

283. 

Cooling  tends  to  contract  bodies,  15. 
Copal m  resin,  294. 
Copenhagen,  gardens  in,  125. 

School  of  Forestry  in,  107. 

Coppice,  for  firewood,  144,  145. 
for  tanning  barks,  207. 

growth,  u.anagement  of,  97. 

quality  of  wood  in,  71. 

when  to  be  cut,  98. 

Corn  ace®,  267. 
Cornel  iamily,  267. 
Cornus  (genus),  268. 

florida,  146,  268. 

Nuttalii,  268. 

Corylleae,  210. 

Cork  oak,  62,  212. 

Corporations,  management  of  forests 

by,  105. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  a  preservative, 

197. 

Corrosion  of  lime  by  smoke,  151. 
Corsican  pine,  period  of  full  growth, 

105. 
Cot  ton  wood,  284,  286,  346,  348,  350. 

as  a  nurse  to  other  trees,  38. 

extraordinary  growth  of,  70. 

in  village  planting,  120. 

insects  injurious  to,  183. 

of  Pacific  coast,  288. 

on  the  plains,  352. 

pollards,  60. 

seeds  of,  31,  33. 

self-sown,  37. 

should  not  be  planted  too  large, 

56. 

under  timber-culture  act,  93. 

yellow,  so  called,  287. 

Cotyledons  of  seeds,  34. 

Counties  in  Kansas;  list  of  trees  pre- 
ferred in,  346-348. 

Covert,  definition  of,  101. 

Crab-apple  in  hedges,  129. 

tree,  in  Oregon,  262. 


Index. 


361 


Crab-apple,  sweet-scented,  261. 

Cracks  from  seasoning,  how  pre- 
vented, 141. 

in  timber,  from  frost,  24. 

Crataijus  (genus),  204, 

cocci  nea,  204. 

oxycanthus,  129,  136. 

paniculata,  264. 

rivularis,  204. 

Creosote,  preserving  properties  of, 
194. 

Crickets,  173. 

Cryptoineria  Japonica,  41,  310. 

Crypturgus,  187. 

Cucumber-tree,  294. 

Cultivation  between  trees,  350. 

of  hedges,  130. 

preparation  by,  8. 

in  timber-culture  claims,  91.  92, 

354. 

Cunninghamia,  vitality  of  seeds  of, 
41. 

Cupressinese,  303. 

Cupressus  (genus),  303,307. 

Arizonica,  307. 

Goveniana,  307. 

in  cemeteries,  126. 

Macnabiana,  307. 

macrocarpa,  307. 

Nutkanus,  307. 

Cup  shake,  in  timber,  143. 
Cupuli ferae,  210. 

Curl  maple,  238. 
Currant-bush  borers,  184. 
Currants,  cuttings  set  in  fall,  45. 
Curves  illustrating  humidity.  13,  14. 
Curved  walks,  when  not  admi  sible, 

125. 
wood,    how   produced,   6),    61, 

102. 

Cu.scata,  troublesome  on  willows,  283. 
Custom,  influence  of,  114. 
Cutting-back  of  oaks,  etc.,  52. 

of  Wood,  time  for,  98,  137,  138. 

Cuttings  of  willows,  when  made,  181, 

182. 
Cuttings,  propagation  by,  44,  349. 

very  large,  should  not  be  used, 

50. 

Cylindrical  bark-beetles,  187. 

Cyllene  picta,  182. 

Cynodon  dactylon,  planted  on  dunes, 

109. 
Cypress.  303,  307 

differences  in  leaves  of,  66. 

Daerydium,  vitality  of  seeds  of,  111. 


Dahoon,  293. 

Dakota,  privileges  of  citizens  of,  95. 

Dammara  australis,  204. 

Damp  climates,  favorable  to  coppices, 

100. 
Davy,   Sir   Humphrey,    process   by, 

197. 

Dead  wood,  removal  of,  103. 
Deciduous  leaves,  64. 
Decisions  under  timber-culture  acts, 

92-95,  354. 

Decline  in  fruit  production,  26. 
De  Courval,  method  of  pruning  by, 

60. 
Deepening  of  channels  of  streams, 

19. 

Defects  of  timber,  143. 
Definitions,  1. 
Degrees  of  slopes,  9. 
De  la  Blanchere  cited,  161. 
Denmark,  forests  in.  83. 
Dennisville,  N.  J.,  buried  cedar  at, 

306. 

Density  of  cultivated  forests,  104. 
Des  Cars,  method  of  pruning  by,  60. 
De  Saussure,  on   absorption  of  gases 

by  charcral,  147. 

Devoid  of  timber,  term  defined,  94. 
Dew,  when  formed,  16. 
Dew-point,  12. 
rain  falls  when  the  air  is 

cooled  to,  16. 

Decay  of  wood,  preventions  of,  187. 
Deer,  injury  to  trees  from,  161. 
Dibble,  not  to  be  used   in    planting 

seeds,  38. 

Diervilla,  not  found  in  California,  88. 
Digger-pine,  326. 
Dioecious  blossoms,  29. 
Diospyros  Texana,  292. 

V^rginiaria,  146,  292. 

Diptera,  general  notice  of,  179. 
Disintegration    of    rocks,    aided    by 

roots,"  7. 

Distance  between  plants,  49,  50,  350. 
Disinfecting  properties  of  charcoal, 

147. 

Distillation  of  turpentine,  199.  t 

Distilled  products  of  wood,  153. 
Distortion  from  seasoning,  141.  . 
Divides,  timber  on  western,  88. 
Division  of  the  soil  and  its  defects,  6. 
Day-flies,  174. 
Dogwood,  American  and  Asiatic,  84, 

146. 
maple,  238. 


3C2 


Index. 


Douglas,  Dr.  David,  notice  of,  338. 

'fir,  90,  304,  337. 

Downy  poplar,  28. 

Dragon-flics,  174. 

Drains,  tilled  by  roots,  119. 

Drawing  nnd  resetting  of  trees,  42. 

Drift,  transportation  of  soil  by,  4. 

Drifting  of  snow  prevented  by  plant- 
ing, 23. 

sands,  how  fixed,  108. 

Dromart,  process  of  charcoal  making, 
152. 

Drouth,  effect  of  on  wood  growth,  69. 

how  caused,  18. 

turning  point  of,  17. 

Druid-City,  Tuskalocsa  so  called,  123. 

Drying  eff.-ct  of  winds,  22. 

houses  for  forest  seeds,  34. 

Dry-rot,  in  timber,  189. 

Ducts  in  wood-structure,  67,  68. 

Duhamel,  method  for  checking  tap- 
roots, 43. 

on  seasoning  of  wood,  140. 

Durability  of  wood,  how   produced, 
141,  187. 

Dunes,  planting  of,  108. 

Dutch-beech,  284. 

Dwarf-oak,  214. 

Dying-off  of  chestnuts,  223. 

Earle,  cited,  194. 

Earth,  how  warmed  by  snow,  23. 

thermometers,  21. 

Eastern  aspect,  9. 

Eberswalde,  School  of  Forestry  at, 
108. 

Egleston,  N.  H.,  cited,  123. 

Egypt,  injuries  from  clearing  in,  26. 

Eisnach,  School  of  Foresty  at,  108. 

Elastic  force  of  vapor,  12. 

Elaterideae,  notice  of,  170. 

Elders,  269. 

Elliott's  pine,  331. 

Elm  (genus  f'lmus),  243. 

eork,  245. 

grown  in  high-forests,  102. 

in  Kansas,  346,  348. 

red,  244,  245,  246. 

rock,  244. 

—  slippery,  244,  245. 

small-leaved,  245. 

white,  243,  346. 

: wych,  247. 

insect  injuries  to,  180. 

not  found  in  California,  89 

period  of  full  growth,  105 

ripens  seeds  in  spring,  33. 


Elm,  seeds  described,  31. 

soil  having  potash,  favors,  7. 

under  timber  culture  act,  93. 

white,  146.  243. 

Embryo  of  seeds,  35. 

Emerson,  Geo.  JJ.,  cited,  146,  250. 

Emery's  oak,  214.  t 

Endogenous  growth,  2. 

Endosmose,  78. 

Engelmann,   Dr.  Geo.,  classification 
of  oaks  by,  213. 

classification  of  pines  by,  317. 

• on  catalpa,  290. 

Engelmann's  spruce,  334. 

England,  forests  in,  83. 

English  elm,  127,  245,  246. 

hawthorn,  129. 

—  rnaple,  seed  of,  32. 

oak,  215. 

Entry  of  timber  claims,  91. 

Epidermis  of  bark,  67. 

Epigna,  not  found  in  California,  88. 

Equilateral  triangles,  planting  in,  48. 

Erosions,  effect  of  aspect  on,  10. 

prevented  by  willows,  etc.,  283. 

Escorial,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Essential  oils,  from  conifers,  204. 

Eucalyptus  (genus),  264. 

cornuta,  265. 

gigantea,  265. 

globulus,  66,  265,  266. 

marginata,  265. 

rostfata,  265. 

transplanting  of,  54. 

viminalis,  265. 

Eugenias,  267. 

Euonymus  Americana,  292. 

angustifolia,  292. 

atropurpurea,  292. 

Europe,  forest-areas  in,  83. 

European  forest  administrations,  105. 

schools,  107. 

larch,  343,  344,  345. 

oak,  212. 

plans  of  forest-management,  96. 

silver-fir,  341. 

Evaporation,  12. 

a  cooling  process,  16,  17. 

from  leaves,  65. 

from  soils,  20. 

how  measured,  19,  20. 

Evergreen-oak,  Californian,  219. 

Evergreens,    in    ornamental   planta- 
tions, 117,  119. 

must   be   started   in  nurseries, 

351. 


Index. 


363 


Evergreens,  should  not  be  placed  in 
front,  118. 

transplanting  of  large,  55. 

Evois,  School  of  Forest rvMit,  107. 

Example,  influence  of,  114. 

Excentrie  growth,  75. 

Exchange  of  homestead-entry  to 
timber-purchase,  93. 

of  timber-culture  claims  not  al- 
lowed, 94. 

Excursions  of  Forest  Societies,  107. 

Exfol.ation  of  bark  of  Scotch  pine, 
73. 

Exogenous  growth  defined,  2. 

wood,  structure  of.  06. 

Exotic  species,  where  desirable,  127. 
Expansion  from  heat,  15. 
Experiments  advised.  44,  128,  353. 
should  precede  extensive  plant- 
ing, 85. 

Explosion  of  coal-pits,  148. 
Extract  of  chestnut,  223. 

tanning,  207. 

Fagus  (genus),  225. 

Cunninghamii,  228. 

ferruginea,  227. 

fusca.228. 

Alenziesii,  227. 

Solandri,  228. 

sylvatica,  225,  226. 

Fall,  cuttings  set  in,  45. 

transplanting,  44. 

Farm- houses,  location  of,  116. 
Fees,  of  timber-culture  act,  91. 
Fertility,  how  given  to  soil  by  trees, 

66. 

how  maintained,  91. 

Fertilization  of  blossoms,  28,  29. 

of  soil  in   planting,  8,  9. 

Fertilizers,  use  of,  56. 

Fibers  of  roots,  52,  53,  76,  77. 

Field-oak,  214. 

Fields,  proportion  to  woodlands,  82. 

Filaments,  of  stamens,  28. 

Finland,  forests  in,  83. 

Fir,  Douirlas,  93,  337. 

family,  338. 

— —  period  of  full  maturity,  105. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

Firs  grown  as  hi^h-forests,  102. 
Fire,  coal-pits  liable  to  cause,  148. 
• guards  100,  156,  157. 

wood,    qualities    required     for 

best,  144. 

Fires,  causes  of,  155. 
cause  oak  openings,  etc.,  86,  87. 


Fires,  forest,  154-159. 

prevention  of,  156. 

Fish,  intoxication  of,  255. 
Fissures,  soil  in,  reached  by  roots,  5. 
Fitzroya,  30k 
Flexible  pine,  321. 
Flies,  179. 

Floated  wood,  drying  of,  140. 
Floods,  effect  of  woodlands  on,  18. 
Flood-wood,  loses  much  of  its  weight, 

140. 
Florida,  alternation  of  growth  in,  90. 

p:ne-belt  in,  200. 

Flowering  dogwood,  268. 

Fogs,  how  caused.  16. 

Forest  administrations,  105,  106. 

City,Cleveland,O.,  so  called,  123. 

fires,  154,  159. 

growth,  alternations  in,  90. 

guards,  100. 

management,  plans  of,  96. 

planting  in  Scotland,  112. 

Forestry  Associations  107,  108. 

definition  of  term,  1. 

-schools  of,  107. 

sciences  involved,  1. 

what  it  teaches,  2. 

Forests,  effect  on  melting  snows.  23. 

how  they  may  cause  rain,  17. 

relation  10  rainfall,  21. 

Forfeiture  of  timber-claims,  92. 

Forsythias,  270. 

Fortification*,    line    of    changed    to 

ga  i-d  ens,  124. 
Fountains  in  parks,  124. 

in  rural  plantations,  117. 

France,    care    of    b.rds     taught    in 

schools,  167. 

chestnut  as  food  in,  222. 

disease  of  chestnut  trees  in,  78, 

224. 

forest-administration  in,  106. 

forests  in,  83. 

forests  killed  by  frost  in,  23. 

planting  of  dunes  in,  108,  109. 

reboisement  in,  111. 

roadside  planting  in,  121. 

time  of  transplanting  in,  44. 

turpentine-production  in,  201. 

Fraxinus  (i^enus),  270. 

Americana.  146,  271. 

anomala,  272. 

cuspidata.  272. 

dipetala,  272. 

excelsior,  270. 

Greggii,  272. 


364 


Index. 


Fraxinus  Oregona,  272. 

pistacijeiblia,  272. 

platycarpa,  272. 

pubescens,  272. 

quadrangulata,  272. 

banibuci folia,  272. 

viridis,  272. 

Frenela,  vitality  of  seeds  of,  41. 

Fringe-tree,  270. 

Frost,  injuries  of,  7,  23,  24,  41. 

Froth-insects,  174. 

Fruit,  decline  in  production,  25. 

flies,  179. 

killed  by  unseasonable  frost,  24. 

Fry  process,  paper  making,  206. 
Fuel,  experiments  of  Marcus    Bull, 

145. 

qualities  requisite  in,  144. 

Fuerta<;-e,  so  called,  96. 

Full-growth  of  forests,  102. 

Funi;i,  a  cause  of  disease   in  wood, 

188. 

upon  roots,  77,  224. 

Futaie  (high-forest),  102. 
Gaining  rates  of  wood  growth,  81. 
(.Tjiiissoniere,  la,  205. 
Gullfl.es,  180,  183,  185. 
Game-laws,  utility  of,  167. 
Gardens,  on  line  of  old  fortifications, 

124. 
Gases,  absorbed  by  charcoal,  147. 

formed  in  meilers,  149. 

from  smoke,  153. 

Gathering  and  keeping  of  seeds,  33, 

351. 

General  views  upon  Forestry,  79. 
Genus,  definition  of  term,  3. 

name  often  from  Greek,  4. 

Geology,  relations  to  Forestry,  1. 
Geometer-moths,  180. 
Geometra  brurnata,  179. 
Geometrae,  or  span-worms,  177. 
Georgia,  pine-belt  in,  200. 

mortality  among  chestnut  trees 

in,  223,  224. 
Germany,    Schools   of    Forestry   in, 

107. 
forest-admin  i.strations  in,  106. 

forest*  in,  83. 

road>ide  planting  in,  121. 

Germination  of  seeds,  35. 
Giant  arbor- vitae,  3U6. 

tree  of  California,  312,  313. 

Giessen,  School  of  Forestry  in,  108. 
Gilbert's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  26. 
Ginger-pine,  307. 


Ginkgo,  65,  304,  315. 

Glady  limestone,  red-cedar  grows  on, 

308. 

Glaubnr,  preserving  process  of,  190. 
Gleditschia  ti  icantbos,  129,  258,  346. 
Gluten  of  seeds,  35. 
Glycobus  speciosa,  183. 
Gnats,  179. 

Gnetam,  vitality  of  seeds  of,  41. 
Goats,  pasturage  of  injurious,  100. 
Goat-willow,  279. 
Gooseberries,  cuttings  may  be  set  in 

fall,  45. 

Gormand  branches  of  oak,  J  01. 
Gopher,  injuries  from,  J131,  1GO. 
Grades  of  lorest-service,  106. 
Grafting,  3.  45,  46. 

of  conifers,  302. 

Grain  of  wood,  contorted,  76. 

sown  with  forest-tree  seeds,  41. 

Grand  Haven,  Mich.,  dunes  at,  108. 
Grape-cuttings,   may  be  set  in   fall, 

45 

Grass- hoppers,  173. 
Gratings  in  pavements  over  roots  of 

trees,  121. 

Gratz,  School  of  Forestry  at,  107. 
Gray,  Dr.  Asa,  cited,  88. 
Gray-oak,  213. 

-pine,  329. 

willow,  279. 

Gray's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  26. 
Grease-wood,  on  alkaline  soils,  7. 
Great  Britain,  forests  in,  83,  89. 

rains  in,  23. 

Greece,  forests  in,  83. 

injuries  from  clearing  in,  26. 

valonia  produced  in,  206. 

Greek  origin  of  generic  names,  4. 

Gr<jen  ash,  272. 

Green,  the  color  of  foresters,  106. 

Grigor,  J.,  cited,  278. 

Grinding  of  wood  for  paper,  205. 

Ground  fires,  how  stopped,  157,  158. 

hemlock,  318. 

Groves,  coolness  of,  16. 

favor  insectivorous  birds,  167. 

asce-iding  currents,  17. 

Growth  of  wood,  66,  69,  70,    71,   74, 

81. 

process  of,  63. 

rates  of.  75. 

stimulated   by  removing   outer 

bark,  02. 

Grub  prairies,  52. 
Guano,  as  a  fertilizer,  56. 


Index. 


365 


Guess,  George  (Sequoia),  311. 

Guyot,  Prof.,  tables  by,  14. 

Gum-enegal,  301.  [88. 
trees  n<  t  found  in  California, 

formerly  nut  allowed  in 

timber-claims,  93. 

Gunpowder,  charcoal  used  in,  152. 

Gvmnodadns  C'anadensis,  258,  346. 

monosperma,  258. 

Gymno-sperius,  300. 

Hackberry,  93,  250,  346,  348. 

Hackmatack,  343. 

Hairuenau  pine,  334. 

Hales,  Kev.  Stephen,  experiments  by, 
78. 

Ilalesia  (genu«),  270. 

diptera,  270. 

parviflora,  270. 

tetraptera,  270. 

Hamamelis  Virginica,  heating  qual- 
ities of,  146. 

Hand-shears  for  pruning,  60. 

Hard  nut  pine,  326. 

woods,  how  planted  in  Scot- 
land, 113. 

Hardy  c  .talpa,  290. 

Ilarti-r,  cited,  105. 

Hart  man  n  process  in  paper-making, 
206. 

Ilatzfieid  preserving  process,  196. 

Haw,  269. 

Hawthorn,  129,  136.     . 

Hazel-nut,  84,  210. 

Hearths  lor  tar-pits,  203. 

Heart-leaved  magnolia,  295. 

shake  in  timber,  143. 

wood,  no  circulation  in,  188. 

Heat,  differeni  effects  of  upon  soils,  7. 

expanding  power  of,  15. 

passage  of,  through  snow,  22, 

23. 

peeling  of  oak  by  aid  of,  208. 

Heating  qualities  of  various  woods, 
146. 

Heavy  yellow  pine,  323. 

i  ledges,  127. 

Hellebore  for  killing  insects,  167,282. 

Hemiptera,  general  notice  of,  174. 

Hemlock,  84.  304,  335. 

insects  injurious  to,  187. 

oil.  204. 

pitch  from.  204. 

suitable  for  screens,  128. 

tan-bark  from,  207. 

Henry's  Lake,  timber  line  at,  25. 

Herbaceous  grafting  of  conifers,  302. 


Herculaneum,  charcoal  found  at.  1 45. 
Hesse- Darmstadt,  School  of  Forestry 

in,  108. 

Hessian  flies,  179. 
Heyer,  Jjr,  instrument  invented  by, 

53. 
Hickories,  93,  274.  275,  346,  348. 

follows  where  pine  is  cut,  90. 

insects  injurious  to,  181. 

'loss  of  weight  in  drying,  139. 

not  found  in  California,  89. 

pig-nut,    heating    qualities    of, 

146. 

red  heart.  146. 

shell-bark,  146. 

High  cranberry,  269. 

forests,  management  of,  102. 

Himalayas,  timber  of,  84,  127. 

timber-line  on,  25. 

11  itch  ing-posts  in  villages,  120. 
Hoar-frost,  12,  16. 
llochwald,  term  defined,  102. 
Hoeing  of  seed-beds  and    nurseries, 

40. 
Holes   for   planting   preparation    of, 

Holland,  forests  in.  83. 

Hollow  cotton  woods,  cause  of,  56. 

Holly  family,  84,  88,  146,  292. 

differences  in   leaves  of,  66. 

in  hedges,  129. 

Home-adornment,  115. 
Homestead,  attachment  to,  115. 

on  try  act,  44,  94,  96. 

Honey   locust,  84,    88,  93,  258,  346, 

348,  349. 

in  hedges,  129. 

Hooker,  Bentham  and,  classification 

of  conifers  by,  303. 
Hoop-poles,    season    for   cutting,  99, 

137. 

Hop-hornbeam,  233. 
Hornbeam  (Ustrya),  89, 146,  210,  233, 

234,  235. 

blossom  of,  29. 

grown  as  high  forest,  102. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  39. 

winged  seed  of,  32. 

( Nyssa],  268. 

Horse-chestnut,  253,  254. 

in  ornamental  plantinsr,  121. 

Houtin    and     Boutigny,    preserving 

process,  197. 
Hubs,    excellence   of  sour-gum   for, 

268. 
elm,  244. 


366 


Index. 


Huckleberries,  not  found  in  Califor- 
nia. 88. 

Hilton,  preserving  process  of,  190. 

Hurnic  acid,  composition  of,  4. 

Hum  us,  definition  of  term,  4. 

Huntingdon  willow,  279. 

Hybrids,  among  oaks,  214. 

willows,  3. 

how  formed,  3. 

Hydraulic  power,  supply  of  water 
for,  18. 

Hylesinus  piniperda,  164. 

Hylobus  (pine  weevil),  185. 

Hylurgus,  187. 

H  ymenopteni,  general  notice  of,  179. 

Ichneumon  flies,  179.  187. 

Idaho,  privilege  of  citizens  of,  93. 

Ilex  aqui folium,  292. 

Cassine,  292 

Dahoon,  293. 

opaea,  129,  146,  292. 

Ilieiriejfi,  292. 

Illinois,  change  of  climate  in,  18. 

forests  of,  87. 

timber  in,  87. 

Illuminating  ga<  from  wood,  154. 

Improved  methods  of  working  tur- 
pentine, 201. 

Incombustible  wood.  193. 

India,  injuries  from  clearing  in,  27. 

Indiana,  forests  of,  87. 

Injection  of  timber,  apparatus  for, 
191. 

Injuries  to  bark  of  trees,  how  treat- 
ed, 46.  149. 

Insects,  how  they  affect  wood-growth, 
168. 

Insect-poisons,  167. 

ravages,  69,  70.  161. 

Insectivorous  birds,  167,  350 

Inspection  of  forests,  106. 

Institut  agnonomique,  108. 

Intervals  between  trees  in  rows,  47. 

of  time  between  thinnings,  58. 

Intoxication  of  fish,  255. 

Investments  in  forestry,  79,  116. 

Iowa,  evergreen  hedges  in,  129. 

Ireland,  forests  in,  83. 

rains  in,  22. 

Iron  wood,  89,  210,  296. 

formerly  excluded  from  timber- 
claims,  93. 

Italy,  chestnuts  as  food  in,  222. 

disease  of  chestnut  trees  in,  78, 

224. 

forests  in,  83,  106. 


Italy,  injuries  from  clearing  in,  26. 

olives,  how  trimmed  in,  60. 

Japan,  timber  of,  84,  Iz7. 

Japanese  cedar,  310. 

Jardinage  (cutting  by  selection),  96. 

Jars,  transplanting  from,  54. 

Jersey  pine,  329. 

Jettys,  willows  used  for,  280. 

Jones,  Ur  ,  process  of,  193. 

Judas-tree,  259. 

Juglandea3,  273,  275. 

Juglans  Californica,  277. 

cinerea,  146,  277. 

nigra,  146,  276,  347. 

— • —  rupestris,  277. 

June,     best     month     for     breaking 

prairies,  8. 
Juniper.  30o,  308. 

insects  injurious  to,  187. 

oil  of,  204. 

(Larix  Americana},    so    called, 

394. 
Juniperus  (arenas),  303,  308. 

Californica,  309. 

com  munis,  128. 

occidentals.  309. 

pachyphlaea,  309. 

Virg'iniana,  128,  146,  308,  347. 

Sabina,  309. 

Jura   destruction  of  spruces  in,  172. 
Kalmia  aiigustit'olia,  293. 

glauca,  294. 

-  latifolui,  88,  146.  293. 
Kal  ten  bach,  cited,  168. 
Kansas,  tree-planting  in,  346-352. 
Karsten,  cited,  145. 
Kauri  gum,  201. 
Keller,  F.  G.,  invention  of,  205. 
Kentucky  coffee- tree,  54,  88,  258,  346, 

348. 
Kilns  for  making  charcoal,  149,  150. 

tar,  203. 

Knees,  timber  for,  in  ship-building, 

102. 

Knowles,  process  proposed  by,  197. 
Kyanizing  process,  197. 
Label-,  in  arboretums,  125,  126. 
Labidardiere,  discovers  Eucalyptus, 

265. 

Lace-winged  flies,  174. 
Lake  Superior,  forests  south  of,  87. 

rainy  region  south  of,  21. 

Lambert,  A.  li.,  notice  of,  321. 
Lambert's  Pine,  321. 
Lamont's  atmometer,  19. 
earth-thermometer,  21. 


Index. 


367 


Lampblack,  how  made,  203. 

Landes  in  France,  trees  in,  5. 

Lands,  timber,  sale  of,  95. 

Lansing,  Mich.,  meteorological  rec- 
ords at,  15. 

Lapparent,  M.  de,  method  of,  190. 

Larch,  301,  313. 

how  planted  in  Scotland,  112. 

in  Great  Britain,  90. 

percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

period  of  full  growth,  105. 

under  timber-culture  act,  93. 

Large  cutting.*,  not  desirable,  56. 

flowered  magnolia,  295. 

leaved  magnolia,  295. 

toothed  poplar,  286. 

trees,  transplanting  of,  55. 

Larix  (genus),  304,  343. 

Americana,  343. 

Europea.  112,  343. 

Lyallii,  343. 

occidental  is,  343. 

Latent  heat.  15. 

Lateral  roots  of  oak,  43. 

La  Teste,  dunes  ot,  109. 

Latin  origin  of  specific  names,  4. 

Laurel  (sen us  Kalntia),  293. 

California,  298. 

oak,  212. 

Lawson's  cedar,  307. 

Layers  of  growth,  in  reference  to 
strength  of  timber,  142. 

Layers,  propagation  by,  45,  99. 

Leal-buds,  how  formed,  63. 

like  appendages  to  seeds.  31. 

mining  insect*,  180,  183,  184. 

mold,  best  fertilizer  of  trees,  8. 

rolling  insects,  177,  183. 

Leaves,  differences  in  form  and  size, 
66. 

evaporation  from,  16. 

gathering  of,  for  fodder,  99. 

structure  of,  64. 

Lee,  process  in  paper  making,  206. 

Leguminosae,  3. 

Leipzig,  gardens  in,  125. 

Lembui'ii,  School  of  Forestry  in,  107. 

Lep  doptera,  general  notice  of,  174. 

Letellier,  process  proposed  by,  197. 

Lucobalanus  (division  of  oaks),  213. 

Levant,  valonia  from,  207. 

Leveret,  H.,  methods  proposed  by, 
43. 

Libocedras  decurrens,  128,  303. 

vitality  of  seeds  of,  41. 

Ligustrum  vulgare,  in  hedges,  129. 


Lilac,  273. 

Lime,  preserving  properties  of,  193. 
Limestones,  carbonic  acid  in,  11. 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  experience  in  plant- 
ing, 51,  58. 
Linden,  84,  240. 

bark  of,  73. 

grow  from  sprouts,  98. 

insects  injurious  to,  184. 

wood,  structure  of,  72. 

Linseed-oil,  preserving  qualities  of, 

190,  192. 
Liquidamber  styraciflua,  294. 

heating  qualities  of,  146. 

Liriodendron  tulipiff-ra,  250. 

heating  qualities  of,  196. 

Lisbon,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Lissino,  108. 

Literature  of  Forestry,  107. 

Litter,    effect   of    upon    water   from 

rain,  18. 

should  not  be  removed,  90,  103. 

Live-oak,  212,  213,  217,  218. 

Loam,  definition  of,  5. 

Loblolly  pine,  336. 

Locusts  (insects i,  174,  180,  182. 

(trees),  88,  102,  105,   256,   257, 

258,  346,  348,  351. 

black,  346. 

yellow,  346. 

Locut,  honey.     (See  Honey  locust.) 
Lombardv  poplar,  46,  118,  121,  190, 

285.  350. 
London-purple,  as  an  insect-poison, 

167. 
Long-acorn ed  oak,  218. 

—  -leaved  pine,  86,  330. 
Long's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  26. 
Lorentz  &  Parade,  cited,  145. 
Lostal,  M.,  process  of,  193. 
Louisiana,  pine  belt  in,  200. 
Lucanidse  (stag-be3tles),  169. 
Lymexylon,,  a   wood-boring   insect, 

164.  " 

Ly  si  meters,  20,  21. 
McCorquodale,     Wm.,     account     of 

planting  by,  112. 

Madura  aurantiaca,  247,  248,  347. 
Madron  a.  289. 
Magnolia  ( genus),  84,  88,  294. 

acurninata,  294. 

auricutata,  296. 

cordata,  295. 

glauca,  295. 

grandiflora,  146,  295. 

macrophylla,  295. 


368 


Index. 


Magnolia,  umbrella,  295. 

Mahogany,  '298. 

Mail  1  a i-d i 'ere,  la,  295. 

Malte-Brun,  cited,  26. 

Manitoba,  trees  of,  89. 

Mantchuria,  timber  of,  84. 

Manure,  how  best  applied,  8. 

Maples  (genus  Acer),  234. 

at  Lincoln,  Neb.,  58. 

black,  237. 

do  not  grow  well  from  sprouts, 

98. 

grown  in  high-forest?,  102. 

in  Kansas,  846,  348,  349,  350. 

insects  injurious  to,  183. 

red,  146,  238. 

smooth,  239. 

soft,  33,  146,  346. 

striped,  238. 

sugar,  93,  146,  236,  346. 

.  vine,  239. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

Margary  process,  197. 

Maritime  pine,  fails  in  Massachu- 
setts, 109. 

period  of  full  maturity,  105. 

planted  on  dunes,  109. 

suggested  for  Pacific  States,  84. 

turpentine  from,  201. 

Marking-hammer,  a  symbol  of  for- 
ester's profession,  106. 

Marsh,  George  P.,  cited,  26. 

Matches,  danger  from  careless  use 
of,  156. 

Mate  ( Paraguay-tea),  293. 

Mathematics,  relation  of  to  For- 
estry, 1. 

Maxwell,  Thomas,  cited,  123. 

May-flies,  174. 

Jv  eal- worms,  174,  178. 

Mechanics,  relation  of  to  Forestry,  2. 

Medulla,  or  pith,  66. 

Medullary  rays,  67,  68. 

do  not  shrink,  142. 

Meilers,  (coal-pits),  construction  of, 
147-149. 

Melanobalanus  (division  of  oaks,  214. 

Melia  Azcdarach,  296. 

Mclolontha,  vulgaris,  170. 

Melting  of  snow,  23. 

Memorial  trees,  114. 

Mennonites,  mulberry  planted  by, 
249. 

Menzies,  Dr.  Archibald,  335. 

Menzies'  spruce,  334,  335. 

Mesquit,  296. 


Meteorological  influences,  10. 

relations  to  Forestry,  2. 

Mexican  persimmon,  292. 

plane-tree,  252. 

Mexico,  copalm  resin  from,  294. 

Michaux,  cited,  285. 

classification  of  oaks  by,  212. 

Michigan,  arbor-day  in,  62. 

exportation  of  oak  from,  217. 

fires,  155. 

forests  of,  87. 

timber  in,  87. 

Middle  States,  injuries  from  clearing 
in,  27. 

trees  of,  86. 

Military  parade,  squares  for,  126. 

Mineralogy,    relations    of    to    For- 
estry, 1. 

Ministries  in  charge  of  forests,  106. 

Minnesota,  arbor-clays  in,  62. 

forests  of,  87. 

— —  grub-prairies  in,  52. 

pine-region  of,  320. 

timber  in.  87. 

Mirimachi  fire  of  1825,  155. 

Mississippi,  jetties  of,  280. 
pine-belt  in  state  of,  200. 

Mixture  of  species,  50,  76,  100. 

MocUer-nut,  27-~>. 

Moclernes,  reserves  so  called,  101. 

Mohr,  Dr.  Chas.,  cited,  331. 

Moisture,    may    bo   present   without 
rain,  12. 

precipitated  in  crossing  mount- 
ains, 22. 

retained  by  muck  and  peat,  5. 

Mole  cricket,  173,  174. 

Money  value  of  farms  increased  by 
planting,  119. 

Monoecious  blossoms,  29. 

Monoharumus  confusor,  187. 

Montana,  privilege  of  citizens  of,  95. 

Monterey  cypress,  307. 

pine,  326. 

Monuments,  in  parks,  125,  126. 

Moon's  age,  superstition    in   cutting 
trees,  138. 

Moose- wood,  238. 

Moreau  process  for  charring  wood, 
152. 

Mortar,  corroded  by  smoke,  151. 

Morus  (genus),  248,  347. 

alba,  248,  347. 

nigra,  249. 

rubra,  248. 

tartarica,  249. 


Index. 


309 


Moscow,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Mosses,  absence  of  in  Manitoba,  89. 

Mossy-cup  oak,  212. 

Moths,  174,  175. 

Mountain  ash,  93,  261. 

laurel,  140,  299. 

mahogany,  291. 

maple,  238. 

Mountains,  deplete  the  winds  of 
moisture,  22. 

erosions,  how  prevented,  110. 

frosts  upon,  24. 

replanting  of,  57. 

Mount  'Engelmann,  timber-line  on, 
26. 

Shasta,  timber-line  on,  25. 

Muck,  how  formed,  4. 

Mulberry,  89,  348,  349. 

leaf,  64. 

red,  347 

Russian,  249,  348,  349. 

white,  248,  347. 

Mulching,  importance  of,  56,  58,  122. 

Munden,~  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Munich,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Mosquitoes,  179. 

Myall  (  Victorian  acacia],  260. 

JVIyrtaceae  (natural  order),  264,  267. 

Myrtle  (Fagus  Cunning  hamii),  228. 

Names',  common  and  scientific,  4. 

Nancy,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 

Nanquette.  H.,  cited,  138. 

Napoleon  I.,  fixes  time  for  cutting 
trees,  1 38. 

Narrow-leaved  willow,  280. 

Native  growth,  an  indication  to  De 
noticed,  85. 

forest  resources  of  U.  S.,  85. 

Natural  History,  relations  to  For- 
estry, 1 

Natural  order,  definition  of  term,  3. 

Naval  stores,  199 

Nebraska,  arbor-day  in,  62. 

planting  in,  346,  353. 

Necessity  of  close  planting,  50. 

Negundu  aceroides,  87,  239,  346. 

Californiensis,  240. 

Nematus  ventralis,  on  willows,  282. 

Neuroptera,  general  notice  of,  174. 

Nevada,  privilege  of  citizens  of,  95. 

sale  of  timber-land  in,  95. 

Newberry,  Prof.  J.  S.,  cited,  337. 

New  England,  injuries  from  clearing 
in,  27. 

trees  of,  85. 

New  Haven,  the  "City  of  Elms,"'  123. 


New  Jersey,  buried  cedar  in,  306. 

New  Mexico,  cliff-dwellings  in,  27. 

pollards  in,  60. 

privilege  of  citizens,  95. 

Night-moths,  17o. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  56. 

Nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere,  11. 

Noble  fir,  340. 

Noctuae,  or  owlet- moths,  177. 

Nomaison  process  for  peeling  bark, 
208. 

Nootka  cedar,  307. 

Norfolk-Island  pine,  304. 

North  America,  general  view  of  tim- 
ber of,  84. 

North  Carolina,  chestnut  failing  in, 
223. 

pine-bolt  in,  200. 

Northern  aspect,  9. 

balsam-fir,  339. 

Noithrup,  13.  G.,  cited,  123. 

Norway,  forests  in,  83. 

forest-schools  in,  108. 

pine,  323. 

rains  in,  22. 

spruce,  128,  333,  349. 

-  pitch  from,  204. 

Nova  Alexandria    (Poland),  School 
of  Forestry  in,  108. 

Number  of  trees,  on  a  given  acre,  49, 
50. 

Nurseries,  5,  39,  42. 

Nurses,  trees  planted  for,  38,  50,  51. 

Nuts,  how  planted,  34,  35,  38. 

Nyssa  (srenus),  268. 

multiflora,  46.  268. 

Oak,  agrees  with  beech  and  pine,  51, 
104/216. 

bark,     obtained     by     coppice- 
growth,  100. 

barren,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

scrub,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

—  blossom  of,  29. 

burr,  347. 

chestnut- white,  heating  qualities 

of,  146. 

exportation  of,  217. 

grown  as  high-forests,  102. 

grows  readily  from  sprouts,  98. 

hybrids  of,  3,  214,  215. 

openings,  how  caused,  87. 

peeling  of,  by  heat,  208. 

period  of  full  growth  of,  105. 

pin,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

qualities,  how  affected,  216. 

red,  heating  qualities  of.  146. 


370 


Index. 


Oak,  rock-chestnut,  heating  qualities 

of,  146. 
roots,  mode  of  securing  lateral, 

43. 
scrub  black,  heating  qualities  of, 

146. 

seasoned  by  peeling,  140. 

shell-bark  white,  heating  qual- 
ities of,  146. 

Spanish,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

structure  of  wood  of,  66,  67. 

tan  bark  of,  207,  208. 

under  timber-culture  act,  93. 

weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

white,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

yellow,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

Oak-leaf-and-acorn,   a  symbol    with 

foresters,  106. 
Oaks,  and  their  related  species,  210. 

classifications  of,  210,  212. 

grown    with   other  species,  51, 

104,  216. 

how  planted  in  Scotland,  112. 

in  Canada.  89. 

in  Kansas,  347,  348. 

insects  that  injure,  180. 

range  of  growth,  211. 

transplanting  of,  43,  52,  215. 

Objects  of  forestry,  101. 

Oblong-leaved  oak,  213. 

Ocean  winds,  22. 

Odors,  introduced  by  absorption,  195. 

Ohio,  arbor  day  in,  62. 

buckeye.  254. 

forests  of,  87. 

Oil  from  Eucalyptus,  266. 

of  turpentine,  199. 

Oils,  essential,  from  conifers,  204. 

impregnation  of  woO"d  with,  192. 

Old-field  pine,  326. 

Olea  Kuropea.  273. 

Olive,  60,  273. 

Olneya  t-sotn,  296. 

One-leaved  pine,  323. 

Orchards,  benefitted  by  shelter-belts, 

132. 
Ordinances  for  protection,  in  villages, 

120. 
Oregon  alder,  233. 

ash,  272. 

cedar,  307. 

crab-apple,  262. 

hemlock,  336. 

maple,  238. 

pine,  337. 

• sale  of  timber  in,  95. 


Oreodaphne  Californica,  298,  299. 
Organic  materials  in  the  soil,  4. 
Oriental  plane-tree,  252. 
Ornamental  planting,  113. 
Orono,  the  range  of  humidity  at,  15. 
Orthoptera,  general  notice  of,  173. 
Osage-orange,  84.  93,  247,  248. 

as  a  hedge  plant,  129,  130,  131. 

in  Kansas,  247,  248,  249,  250. 

limits  of,  131. 

Osier-Willows,  280,  281,  282. 
Osinanthus  Americana,  273. 
Ostrya  Virginica,  296. 
Outcrop  of  rock  formations,  7. 
Overcup  white-oak,  212. 
Overflow  kills  trees.  22. 
Oxydendrum  arboreum,  296. 
Oxygen  in  atmosphere,  11. 
Pacific  coast,  injury  to  mountains  in, 

111. 

oaks  of,  218. 

rains  upon.  21,  22. 

timber  of,  88. 

trees     from,     not     adapted     to 

United  States,  84. 
Packard,  A.  S.,  Jr.,  report  on  insects 

by,   169. 
Painting,  a  preserving  process,  190. 

of  wounds,  101. 

Palmer's  dwarf-oak,  214. 

Palmetto,  2. 

Paper  baskets  for  transplanting,  54. 

from  wood,  205. 

Paraguay  tea,  293. 

Paris-green  as  insect  poison,  167. 

—  Institut  agronomique  at,  108. 
Parks  in  cities,  planting  of,  123. 
Parry,  C.  C.,  timber-line  as  given  by, 

25.. 
Pasturage,  injuries  from,  96,  99,  110. 

of  woodlands,  159. 

Patents  for  hedges,  131. 
Pavements,  guards  around   trees  in, 

,120. 
Paving-stones  under  oak   seed-beds, 

43. 

Pawpaw,  88,  289. 
Pa v no  process  for  preserving  wood, 

198. 

Peach,  in  Kansas,  347. 
formerly  excluded  from  timber-. 

claims,  93 

Pear  (genus  Pints),  84.  260. 
Peat,  composition  and  uses  of,  5 
Pecan-nut.  274,  347,  348. 
Peeling  of  oak  by  heat,  208. 


Index. 


371 


Peeling  of  wood  hastens  drying,  140. 
Peus  should  not  be  lelt  in  trimming, 

611. 

P«pperidi;e  i  Nyssa),  268. 
Percentages  ot  humidity  illustrated, 

13,  14. 
Percolation  of  water,  how  measured, 

20,  21. 
Perfume  from  Eucalyptus,  267. 

pine  sap,  204. 

Period  for  cutting  coppice-wood,  99. 
Periodical  literature  of  forestry,  1'07. 
Perishable  baskets  for  transplanting, 

54,  218. 

Persimmon,  84,  88,  140,  142. 
Peruche  ('hemlock),  835. 
Peshtigo/fire  of,  1871,  loo. 
Petioles  of  leaves.  04. 
Petrifaction,  artificial,  195. 
Petroleum,  preserving  properties  of, 

192. 

Phosphate  of  lime,  use  of,  56. 
Physics,  relation  to  forestry,  2 
Pieea  (genus),  304,  332. 

alba,  128,  332. 

.  l£n  gel  man  nii,  334. 

exeelsa,  128,  332. 

Menziesii,  334,  335. 

nigra,  128.  332. 

pun  gens,  334. 

.  Site  hen  sis.  335. 

Pic-he's  evaporator,  20. 

Pigeons,  nesting  of  in  beech  woods, 

227. 

Pi;- nut,  275. 

Pike's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  26. 
Piles,     durability    of    increased    by 

charring,  189. 

Pinaster  (section  of  pines),  318. 
Pin-du-lord,  319. 
Pine  and  fir  tamily,  304,  (pines)  316. 

13 a  1  four's,  323. 

.  -belt,  ot  Southern  States,  200. 

blaek,  or  Austrian,  347. 

cutting  by  selection,  96 

flexible,  321. 

forests  in  Canada,  89. 

•  heavy,  or  western  vellow,  323. 

Terse"}-,  146,  329. 

leaves,  64. 

long -leaved.  330. 

Norway,  or  red,  323. 

one-leaved.  323. 

Parry's,  322. 

percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

piiion,  32G. 


Pine,  pitch,  318,  328. 

regions  of  United  States,  319. 

sap,  perfume  Irom.  204. 

Scotch,  301,  331,  347. 

seeds,  described,  31. 

must  be  protected,  161. 

southern  yellow,  330. 

sugar,  320. 

Torrey's,  323. 

under  timber-culture  act,  93. 

weevil,  185. 

weight,  lost  in  drying,  139. 

white,  318,  320,  322. 

heating  qualities  of,  146. 

remarkably  large,  316. 

white-barked,  322. 

white    and    yellow,   Am.    and 

Asiatic,  84. 

yellow,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

Pines  as  wind-breaks,  134. 

benefit  the  oaks  when  young,  51. 

classification  of.  317. 

commercial  importance  of,  317. 

description  of,  316,  317. 

in  Kansas,  347. 

insects  injurious  to,  185. 

northern  range  of,  89. 

Pin-oak,  213,  214. 

Pinon  pine,  323. 

Pin  us  (sen  us),  304,  316. 

Arizonica,  323. 

austral  is,  8H,  200,  330. 

Austriaca.  347. 

Balfouriana,  323. 

Banksiana,  329. 

eembroides,  323. 

Chihuahuana,  318. 

contorta,  325. 

Coulteri,  326. 

edulis,  323. 

Klliottii,  321. 

flexilis,  320. 

var.  albicaulis,  322. 

glabra,  329. 

in  ops.  329. 

in  sign  is,  326. 

Lambertiana,  320. 

mitis,  14o,  329. 

monticola,  320. 

monophylia.  323. 

— muricata,  326. 

Pa-rvana.  322. 

pinaster,  109,  201,  202. 

ponderosa,  323. 

refloxa,  322. 

resinosa,  200,  323. 


372 


Index. 


Pin  us  rigida,  97,  109,  146,   200,   328, 

329. 

Sabiniana,  326,  327. 

strobus,  146,  318.  347. 

sylvestris,  73,  112,  301,  321,  347. 

taeda,  326. 

Torreyana,  323. 

tuberculata,  318,  326. 

Pirus  (genus),  261. 

Americana,  261. 

aucuparia,  261. 

_  coronaria,  129,  261. 

malus,  J46. 

rivularis,  262. 

sambucifolia,  262. 

Pissodes  notatus,  186. 

strobi,  186. 

Pistils,  functions  of  the,  28. 
Pitch,  how  made,  203. 

pine,  109,  325,  326. 

Pith  of  wood,  66. 

Piains,  cultivation  on  the,  352. 

Planera,  American  and  Asiatic,  84. 

aquatica,  247. 

Plane-tree,  93,  251,  252. 

Planks,   strongest   way   of    placing, 

142. 

Plant-lice,  174. 
Planting,  in  Kansas  and   Nebraska, 

346. 
mode  of,  36,  37,  38,  47,  52,  108, 

112,  122,  328. 

on  stony  surfaces,  57. 

ornamental,  113. 

pleasure  from,  82. 

preparation  of  ground  for,  8. 

should  he  close,  in  certain  cases, 

60. 
species   allowed  under   former 

timher-eulture  rules,  93. 
under    homestead   and   timber- 

culturo  acts,  91,  94. 
Planting,  would  prevent  deepening 

of  streams,  19. 
riafaneae  (order),  251. 
Platan  us  orientals,  252. 

occidentals,  251.  347. 

racemosa,  252,  253. 

Pliny,  cited,  138. 

Plum  (genus  Prunus),  262. 

formerly  not  allowed  in  timber 

claim,  93. 
Plumule,  35. 
Podocarpese,  304,  316. 
Podocarpus,  vitality  of  seeds  of,  41. 
Poetry  of  Forestry,  114. 


Points  of  compass  in  setting  trees, 
122. 

Poisoning  of  gophers,  131,  160. 

Polenta,  from  chestnuts,  222. 

Political  economy,  relation  of  For- 
estry to,  2. 

Pollards,  treatment  of,  60. 

Pollen,  functions  of,  28. 

Polycotyledonous  plants,  300. 

Polytechnic  schools,  Forestry  taught 
in,  108. 

Pond-dogwood,  270. 

pine,  329. 

Ponds,  ornamental,  117. 

Poplar  family,  277. 

ab.ele,  284,  349. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  288. 

Lorn  hardy,  146,  285,  347. 

-  —  seed  of,  33. 

silver-leaf,  347. 

tulip,  250. 

— —  weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 

wood,  ornamental,  60. 

yellow,  146. 

Poplars,  general  notice  of,  284. 

growth  for  paper  making.  206. 

grow  readily  from  sprouts,  98. 

in  Kansas,  347,  348. 

insects  injurious  t-«,  183. 

northern  range  of,  89. 

planted  on  dunes,  109. 

ripen  seed  in  spring,  33. 

roots  seek  the  water,  75,  77,  119. 

used  for  paper  making,  205,  2U6, 

284. 

village  planting  of,  120. 

Populus  (genus),  284. 

alba,~284,  347. 

angulata,  288. 

angustifolia,  288. 

balsarnifera,  288. 

cand  loans,  288,  347. 

dilatata,  146,  285,  347. 

Fremontii,  k88. 

grandidentata,  286. 

monili.'era,  ^86,  '288,  346. 

tremuloides,  85,  284. 

trichocarpa,  288. 

Portugal,  forests  in,  83. 

School  of  Forestry  in,  108. 

Post- oak,  212,  213. 
Posts,  season  for  cutting,  100. 
Potash,  in  wood,  188. 
Prairies,  causes  of,  87. 
soil    how    prepared    for    plant- 
ing, 8. 


Index. 


373 


Prechtel's  process  of  preservation, 
198. 

Preferences  of  trees  in  Kansas,  246- 
348. 

Preparation  of  large  trees  for  plant- 
ing, 55. 

of  soil  for  planting.  8,  352. 

Preservation  of  seeds,  351. 

of  wood,  187. 

Pressure  of  sap,  78. 

Prices  of  timber  in  Scotland,  113. 

probable  increase  of,  82. 

Prickly-ash,  not  found  in  California, 

88. 

pine.  329. 

Pride-of-India,  296. 

Prinos  (see  Ilex),  293. 

Privet,  129,  270. 

Privileges    of    citizens     in     certain 

states,  95. 

Processionary  caterpillar,  161,  162. 
Profit,  questions  of,  79,  80. 
from  increased  value   of   land, 

82. 
Propagation,   by   cuttings,    etc.,   44, 

349. 

in  grafting,  45. 

layers,  45. 

various  modes  of,  37. 

Proportion  of  woodlands  to  fields,  82. 
Prosopis  glandulosa,  296. 

pubescens,  296. 

Protection  other  than  against  fires, 

159. 

Proteine  in  the  seed,  35. 
-Proving  of  timber-claims,  92,  93. 
Pruning  of  gormand  branches,  101. 

when  advisable,  59. 

Primus  (genus),  262. 
Caroliniana,  263. 

Chicasa.  263. 

Pennsylvanica,  263. 

perotuia,  262. 

Virginiana,  263,  346. 

Prussian  schools  of  Forestry,  108. 

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii,  304,  337. 

Psych rometef,  construction  and  use 
of,  12. 

Public  health,  promotion  of  by  plant- 
ing, 82. 

institutions,  by  whom  founded, 

116. 

Pulp,  paper  from  wood,  205. 

Pulpy  fruits  of  conifers,  41. 

seed  bow  saved,  34. 

Purchase  of  public  timber-lands,  95. 


Pyralidcs,  or  delta-moths,  178. 
Pyrolignite  of  iron,  as   a  preserva- 
tive, 195. 

Quaking  aspen,  87,  284. 
Quercine®,  210. 
Quercitron,  218. 
Quercus  (genus),  211. 

a3gilops,  206. 

alba,  146,  216. 

Banisterii,  146. 

Catesbaei,  146. 

falcata,  146. 

macrocarpa,  347. 

ferruginea,  146. 

obtusitoba,  146. 

palustris,  146. 

pedunculate,  146,  215. 

baric  for  tanning,  207. 

prinos,  heating  qualities  of,  146. 

rubra,  146. 

sessilifolia,    bark    for    tanning 

from,  207. 

virens,  217,  218. 

Quincunx,  order  of  planting,  47. 

Rabbits,  injurious,  160. 

Radiation  of  heat,  7,  16. 

Radicle,  of  roots,  35,  77. 

Railroad  companies,  right  of  way  of, 

94. 
Railroads,  fires  set  by.  156. 

planting  along,  134. 

Russian,  planting  by,  135. 

ties  for,  how  preserved,  189, 100. 

when  allowed  to  use  timber,  94. 

Rain,  falling  upon  woodlands,  18. 
filaments  of,  dry  up  over   dry 

fields,  17. 

freezing,  effects  of,  24. 

how  caused,  17. 

ocean  winds  cause,  22. 

Rainfall,  relation  of  to  forests,  21. 
Raingauges,  at  different  elevations. 

17. 

Rainy  and  dry  seasons,  24. 
Rake  for  forest-planting,  38. 
Ramel,  P.,  introduces  Eucalyptus  in 

France,  265. 

Rates  of  growth  of  wood,  81. 
Reboisement,  defined  and  described, 

110. 
Recipes    for  preservation   of    wood, 

198,  199. 

Recent  decisions  under  timber-cult- 
ure acts,  354. 
Recession   of    woodlands,   in   "West, 

88. 


374 


Index. 


Red  alder,  283. 

ash,  272. 

beech,  227. 

birch,  230. 

-  ( l-ftqus  Menziesii),  228. 

bud,  259. 

cedar.  140,  308. 

best   evergreen    hedge  in 

Iowa,  128,  129. 

—  in  Kansas,  347.  348,  349. 
insects  injurious  to,  187. 

—  |  hinting  of,  303. 

—  saw-dust,  200. 

charcoal.  153. 

fir,  337,  339,  340. 

maple  238. 

oak,  213. 

pine,  323,  325,  330. 

spruce,  337. 

willow.  279,  280,  283. 

Ked  wood,  97,  310,  311,  312,  313,  314. 
Regularity  in  former  seasons,  20. 
Kelative  humidity  of  atmosphere,  13, 

15. 
Reproduction  of  high-forests,  104. 

from  seeds,  28. 

Resemblances   of    flora    of    Eastern 

Asia  and  America.  84. 
Reserves  in  coppice  woods,  101. 
Resinous  products.  199. 
species,  do  not  usually  sprout, 

97. 

Respiratory  organs  of  plants,  04,  65. 
Revenue  from  planting,  82. 
Revolution,  period  of,  99,  102,  105. 
Khamnus  catharticus,  129,  290. 

frangula,  charcoal  of,  152. 

Rhododendrons,  84. 
Rhus  (genus),  297. 

copal  Una,  209. 

coriaria,  209. 

diversiloba,  297. 

glabra,  209,  297. 

integri  folia,  297. 

lauriana,  297. 

pumila,  297. 

toxieodendron,  297. 

—  typhina,  209,  297. 

venenata,  297. 

Rhynchophorideae,  171. 
Rii^a  pine,  332. 
Rights  of  usage,  106. 

of  way  to  railroads,  94. 

Rio  Grande  valley,  cotton  woods  in, 

00. 
Ripening  of  wood,  23,  70. 


River  maple,  237. 

pine,  329. 

Reads  in  \voodlands,  importance  of, 

100. 
lines    of    defense    against   fire, 

157. 

planting  by  side  of,  119-123. 

Robbins'  process  for  preserving  wood, 

198. 
Robert,  Dr.  E.,  preservation  of  elms, 

02,  181. 
Robin ia  hispida,  258. 

pseudacacia,  136,  257,  346. 

viscosa,  208. 

Rock  chestnut  oak,  213. 

formations,  give   character   to 

soil,  4. 

work,  how  adorned,  117. 

Rocks,  underlying  etfect  on  soil,  7. 
Rocky  areas,  effect  of  clearing,  18. 

Mountains  region,  87. 

forests  of,  87. 

snow-slides  on,  24. 

timber-line  in,  25. 

white  oak,  213. 

surfaces,  planting  of,  57. 

Rome,  planting  of  Eucalyptus  near, 

55,  207. 
Roots,  buds  when  formed  on,  77. 

consolidate  the  soil,  8. 

derive  support  from  sub-soil,  5. 

till  drains  and  wells,  75,  77,  119. 

form  and  structure  of,  70. 

from  hedges,  131. 

growing  together,  77. 

how  they  disintegrate  the  soil,  7. 

may  injure  walls,  118. 

must  not  be  exposed  to  air,  43. 

radicles  of,  77. 

transportation  without  disturb- 
ing, 52. 

Rosa  Itevigata.  in  hedges,  129. 

Rose  locust,  258. 

Rosemary-pine,  326. 

Rosin,  200. 

Rotation  of  crops  in  timber,  90. 

Roumania,  forests  in,  80. 

Round-leaved  willow,  279. 

Rows,  planting  in.  37,  47. 

on  hill  sides,  57. 

Royal-oak,  historical  interest  in,  114. 

Rubiacea?,  209. 

Ruin  irom  destruction  of  woodlands, 
20. 

Rules  for  street-planting,  120. 

Running  oak,  212. 


Index. 


375 


Kural  cemeteries,  planting  in,  126. 
Russia,  forest  administration  in,  106. 

forests  in.  83. 

leather,  tanned  with  birch.  229. 

Russian   mulberry,  241). 

—  railways,  planting  on,  135,  136. 
Sabal  palmetto,  2. 
Sa bine's  pine,  826. 
Sane-bush  on  alkaline  soils,  7. 
Sairinaw  Bay.  timber  region  of,  87. 
St.  Petersburg,  School    of    Forestry 

at,  108. 

Sale  of  timber  lands,  95. 
Salicinese,  277.  282. 
Salisburia   adiantifolia,   41,   65,~304, 

315. 
Salix  (genus),  278. 

at  utilolia,  280. 

alba,  347. 

caprea,  ^79. 

fragilis,  279. 

lar,7-eolata,  283. 

mollissima,  280. 

pruinosa,  280. 

purpurea,  280. 

rubra,  '280. 

Russel  liana,  279. 

Uralensis,  280. 

viminalis,  280. 

Salt,  a  preserving  agent,  192. 
Sambucus  (genus).  269. 

Canadensis,  269. 

g'auca,  209. 

nigra,  209. 

pubens,  269. 

racemosa,  269. 

Sand  WHS ps,  179. 

Sands,  planting  upon,  108,  109. 

growth  of  trees  upon,  37. 

Sanitary  advantages  from  planting, 

82. 
Sap  of  maple,  236. 

mineral  substances  in,  65. 

pressure,  78,  79. 

Saperda  carcharias.  184. 

tridentata,  180. 

Sapindus  saponaria,  255. 
Sareobatus  vermicularis,  7. 
Sassafras  offii-innle,  84,  89,  146,  297, 

oil  from,  298. 

Saturation  of  air  with  vapor,  13. 
Savin,  309. 

oil  of.  204. 

Saw-flies,  179. 

Saxe- Weimar,  School  of  Forestry  in, 

108. 


Saxony,  108. 

Scandinavian  forest  administration, 

106. 

Searabseidae,  notice  of,  169. 
Scarlet  oak,  213,  214,  218. 
Sehernnitz,   School    of    Forestry    at, 

107. 

Sciapteron,  larva  of,  184. 
Scientific    names  of  trees,  certainty 

of,  4. 

Schools  of  Forestry,  107. 
some    ideas  of  forestry    should 

be  taught  in,  123. 
Scolvtus  (various  species),  181,  182, 

186. 
Scotch  pine,  331. 

agrees  with  the  oak,  104. 

in  Kansas,  349. 

period  of  full  growth,  105. 

planted  on  dunes,  109. 

Scotland,  Douglas  fir  in,  90,  338. 

lorests  in,  83. 

injuries  from  snows  in,  24. 

planting  in,  112. 

prices  of  timber  in.  113. 

Screens,  use  of,  40,  117.  118. 

—  planting  of,  127,  129. 
Screw-pod  mesquit,  296. 
Scrub-pine,  329. 
Season  for  breaking  prairie  soil.  8. 

for  cutting  wood,  98,  137,  138. 

Season  in  g,  distortion  from,  141. 

mode  of  piling  for,  140,  244. 

of  ship-timber,  142. 

-of  wood,  138,  139,  140. 
Seasons,  changes  in,  24,  25,  26. 
Sebricht    process    in    paper-making, 

205. 

Security  of  landed  property,  80. 
Seed,  germination  of,  34. 

reproduction  from,  28. 

years,  30. 

Seed-beds,  formation  of,  37,  39. 

time  of  sowing,  41. 

Seeding,  easier  on  a  northern  slope, 

9. 

of  a  high-forest,  104. 

Seedlings,  crushed  by  snow,  25. 

need  shade,  105. 

propagation  by,  349. 

Seeds,  t»athering  and  keeping  of,  33, 

34,  35 1 . 

natural  distribution  of,  30. 

soaking  of,  35,  39,  351. 

that  ripen  in  early  summer,  33. 

vitality  of,  41. 


376 


Index. 


Seeds  will  not  germinate  under  water, 

22. 

Selection,  mode  of  cutting  by,  96. 
Sequoia    (George    Guess,    notice    of, 
311. 

gigantea,  312,  313. 

sempervirens,  41,  97,  312,  313. 

Serpe,  a  tool  so  called,  60. 

Service-tree,  93,  146,  264. 

Sesia  (one  of  the  hawk-moths),  175. 

Sessih;  leaves,  64. 

Seventeen-year  locust,  180. 

Sex  of  blossoms,  28. 

Shad-bush,  84. 

Shade,    how   different    from   covert, 

101. 

Shading  of  seedlings,  40,  105. 
Shag-tree,  268. 

Shapes  for  ship-building,  102. 
Shears  for  pruning,  60. 
Sheep,    pasturage  of  in    woodlands, 

160. 

Shell-bark  hickory,  146,  275. 
Shelter-belts,  132,  133,  134. 
Shepardea  argentea,  298. 

eleagnoides,  129,  130,  131. 

S!i ingle-oak,  214. 

Shingles,  from  buried  cedar,  306. 

Ship- building,    curved    timbers    for, 

102. 

live-oak  reserved  for,  218. 

seasoning  of,  142. 

timber  sometimes  charred.  189. 

Short-leaved  yellow  pine,  329. 
Shrinkage  from  seasoning,  141. 
Shrub,  definition  of,  2. 
Shrubbery  around  dwellings,  28,  117 

118. 

Sicily,  sumac  of,  209. 
Signals  in  case  of  fires,  159. 
Silecious  soils,  6. 
Silk-worms,  180,  299. 
Siiver-bell  tree,  270. 

fir,  42,  151,  341,  342. 

L-rain  of  wood,  67. 

leaf  maple,  237. 

poplar,  284. 

Sin '-lair   process,  in    paper-making, 

206. 

Slash  pine,  328. 
Sliding  banks,  how  held,  111. 
Sloe,  269. 
Slope,  angles  of,  8,  9. 

effect  of  upon  tree-growth,  9. 

Smoke  of  birch,  used  in  curing  hams, 

229. 


Smoke,  products  condensed  from,  153. 

seasoning  bv,  141. 

—  when  formed  into  cloud,  17. 
Smooth- maple,  239. 

sumac,  297. 

Snow-ball  bush,  269. 
-  -drop,  270. 

a  slow  conductor  of  heat,  22. 

drifting  of,  how  prevented,  132, 

133. 

injuries  from,  24. 

on  northern  slopes,  9. 

-slides  in   Kooky  mountains,  24. 

Soaking  of  seeds  before  planting,  35, 

39. 

Soap-berry,  255. 
Societies  of  Foresters,  107. 
Sod,  planting  on  the,  52. 
Soda  in  alkaline  soils,  6. 
Soft-leaved  willow,  280. 
Soft-woods,  so  called,  69,  104. 
Soil,  and  its  properties,  4. 

absorption    and     radiation    of 

heat  by,  7. 

classification  of,  6. 

color,  and  its  effect,  7. 

combination  that  secures  fer- 
tility, 5. 

deeper  at  foot  of  hills,  7. 

effect  of  underlying  rock,  7. 

evaporation  from,  20. 

fertility,  how  maintained,  91. 

how  it  influences  the  growth  of 

trees,  5. 

how  placed  in  planting,  8. 

preparation  for  planting,  8. 

.state  of  division,  and  its  effects,  6. 

Solai'  heat,  supposed  cause  of,  16. 

Solutions  for  preserving  timber,  191. 

Sorrel-tree,  296. 

Sour-gum,  146,  268. 

Sour- wood,  296. 

South  Carolina,  pine  belt  in,  200. 

Southern  aspect,  10. 

catalpa,  290. 

over-cup  o;ik,  213. 

States,  hedges  in,  129. 

injuries  from  clearings  in,  27. 

trees  of,  86. 

Sowing  of  tree-seeds,  37. 

season  lor,  41. 

Spades,  frame  for  transplanting  with, 

.     53. 

Spain,  the  chestnut  in,  78,  222,  224. 

forests  in,  83. 

forest  administration  in,  106. 


Index. 


377 


Spain,  injuries  from  clearing  in,  2G. 

School  of  Forestry  in,  108. 

Spanish-oak,  213,  214. 
Span-worms,  183,  187. 
Species,  definition  of  term,  2. 
names    derived    chiefly    from 

L;-itin,  4. 

Specific  gravity  of  woods,  146. 
Sphinges,  or  hawk-moths,  174,  175. 
Spice-tree,  299. 
Spindle-tree,  292. 
Spirits  of  turpentine,  199. 
Sports,  varieties  in  trees  so  called,  3. 
Spring,  effect  of  frosts  in,  24. 

sowing,  41,  44. 

transplanting,  44. 

layer  of  wood  growth,  69. 

Springs,  effect   of  woodlands  upon, 

18. 

Sprouting  of  seeds,  35. 
Sprout-lands,  chestnut,  221. 
Sprouts,  reproduction  of  trees  from, 

97. 
Spruce,  cutting  by  selection,  96. 

European,.  332. 

injuries   to    from    insects,    168, 

172,  186. 

• percentage  of  charcoal  in,  151. 

period  of  full  growth,  102,  105. 

-  -pine,  329,  335. 

suitable  for  hedges,  128. 

Squares,  planting  in,  47. 
Stag-horn  sumac,  297. 
Stamens,  function  of,  28,  29. 
Star-anise  tree,  not  found  in  Califor- 
nia, 88. 

Starch  in  winter-cut  wood,  137. 
Star-shake  in  timber,  143. 
Stearns,  R.  E.  C.,  cited,  266. 
Stimulation  of  growth  by  removing 

outer  bark,  62. 
Stinking  yew,  315. 
Stipe,  part  of  the  pistil,  28. 
Stockholm,   School  of    Forestry   at, 

1U8. 

Stomata  of  leaves,  65. 
Strawberry  tree,  292. 
Streets,  rules  for  planting,  120. 
Strength  of  timber,  142. 
Striped-maple,  238. 
Structure  of  bark,  66,  73. 

of  parts  of  the  tree,  63,  64,  66. 

Stumps,  preparation  of  for  coppice 

growth,  98,  99. 
Styraceae,  270. 


Sub-soil,  effect  of  on  growth  of  trees, 

5. 

Suburban  plantations,  124. 
Sugar,  formed  in  germination,  35. 

in  box-elder,  240. 

maple,  236. 

-  -pine,  320'. 

Sulphate  of  barytes  in  wood-preser- 
vation, 198. 

of  copper,  195-198. 

of  iron,  193. 

Sumac  (genus  Rhus),  84,  88,  297. 

production  of,  46,  208,  209. 

Summer,  cutting   of   wood    in,  137, 

138. 
Swamp-laurel,  295. 

pine,  328,  337. 

white-oak,  212. 

Swamps,  effect  of  upon  water  flow, 

18. 

Sweden,  forests  in,  83. 
Sweet-birch,  230. 

buckeye,  254. 

gum,  140,  294. 

scented  crab-tree,  261. 

Swietenia  mahagonii,  298. 

Swire,    fattening   of   in    woodlands, 

104,  224. 

Switzerland,  forests  in,  183. 
Sycamore  (genus  Platanus],  93,  102, 

146,  251,  347. 

maple,  seeds  of,  33. 

Sylviculture,  defined,  1. 

promotion  of  a  taste  for,  114. 

Symbols  of  the  forester,  106. 
Syringa  (genus),  273. 
Table-mountain  pine,  329 
Tait,  process  for  wood-preservation, 

198. 
Tamarack  (Larix  Americana],  344. 

northern  limit  of,  89. 

Tamarisk,  planted  on  dunes,  109. 

planted  in  hedges,  129. 

Tan-barks,  100,  206,  207,  208 

alder,  231. 

hemlock,  335. 

Tanning,    chestnut    wood    used    in, 

223. 
cf  Russia   leather   with   birch, 

229. 

Tap-roots,  43,  76. 
Tar-manufacture,  203. 

preserving  qualities  of,  190. 

Taxacese,  314. 
Taxese,  Taxodiese,  £04. 


378 


Index. 


Taxodium  distichum,  41,  310. 
Taxus  (genus),  41,  303. 

baccata,  315. 

brevilblia,  314. 

Canadensis,  314. 

Teak,  rapidly  grown,  71. 
Telea  polyphernus,  180,  183. 
Telegraph  poles,  turned  to  trees,  56. 
Tension  of  vapor  (absolute  humidity), 

12. 

Terminal  buds,  63. 
Terraces  for  planting  slopes,  110,  111. 
Territories,  privileges  of  inhabitants, 

95. 

Tessaria  borealis,  298. 
Tests  of  vitality  of  seeds,  36. 
Texas  buckeye,  255. 
Tharand,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 
Thermometers,  earth,  21. 
Thick-shell-bark  hickory,  275. 
Thilmany,    process    for    preserving, 

198. 
Thinning  of  woodlands,  50,  58,  97, 

103. 

as  practiced  in  Scotland,  112. 

Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  cited,  32. 
Thorn -tree,  264. 

Thoroughfares  in  parks,  125,  126. 
Thuja  (genus),  41,  303-307. 

excelsa,  307. 

<>-igantea,  306. 

L:iwsoniana.  307. 

occidentals,  123,  303,  305. 

orientals  (hedge  plant),  128. 

sphaercedalis,  305. 

wood  (  Callitrls),  76,  304. 

Ties  for  railroads,  season  for  cutting, 

100. 

Tiliacese  (natural  order),  240. 
Tilia  (u;en us),  240. 
alba,  241. 

Americana,  241. 

Europea,  241. 

grandi  folia,  241. 

heterophylla,  241. 

parvifolia,  241,  242. 

pubescens,  241. 

Timber-beetles,  171. 
Timber-culture  acts,  91,  354. 

defects  of,  143. 

lands,  sale  of,  95. 

line,  25. 

marks,  scars  of,  74. 

railroad  companies  may  use,  94. 

Time  for  cutting  wood,  98,  f37,  138. 
Tinese,  or  clothing-moths,  178. 


Tipula  saliciperdn,  on  willows,  283. 

Tomicus  (a  spruce  insect),  187. 

Toronto,  humidity  of  air  at,  15. 

Torrents,  restoration  of  injuries  from, 
110. 

Torreya  (genus),  41,  304. 

L'alifornica.  315. 

taxifolia,  315. 

Tor  rifled  wood,  153. 

Tortrrices,  Tortrix,  (leaf-rollers),  171, 
178. 

Tracing  roots,  76. 

Transient  persons  build  no  monu- 
ments, 116. 

Transplanting,  42. 

from  iorests,  51. 

from  seed-beds,  42. 

of  large  trees,  55. 

spring  or  fall,  44. 

without    disturbing    the   roots, 

52,  54. 

Treaty-tree,  historical  interest  of, 
115. 

Tree,  definition  of,  2. 

culture,  entry  of  land  for,  91. 

hoppers,  174* 

of  Heaven  (Ailanthxs),  288. 

planting  in  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, 346. 

on  timber-claims,  91,  354. 

railroad,  134. 

Trees,  allowed  under  timber-culture 
acts,  93. 

effect  of  upon  dew,  16. 

large,  transplanting  of,  55. 

mode  of  growth,  2. 

number  on  a  given  area,  49, 

50. 

Triangular  order  of  planting,  48. 

Trimming,  when  advisable,  59. 

of  stumps,  to  favor  sprouts,  98. 

Trois  Fontaines,  Eucalyptus  planta- 
tion at,  267. 

Tropics,  height  of  timber-line  in,  25. 

Tropical  woods,  eccentric  growth  of, 

layers  of  growth  obscure, 

69. 

Truffle,  growth  of  over  oak  roots,  78. 
Trunk  and  branches,  growth  of,  74.  ; 
Tsuga  (genus),  41,  804,  335. 

Canadensis,  128,  207,  335. 

Caroliniana,  836. 

Mertensiana,  336. 

Fattoniana,  336. 

Tubingen,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 


Index. 


379 


Tulip-tree,  88,  89,  93,  250. 
Tungstate  of  I'm.e  etc.,  193. 
Tupelo  (Kyasa),  268. 
Turkey,  forests  in,  83. 

injuries  from  clearings  in,  26. 

Turpentine,  from  pines,  109,  199.  201, 

330. 
Tuskaloosa.  called  the  "  Druid  City," 

123. 

Tussock-caterpillar,  180. 
Twisted-branch  pine,  325. 
Ulmns  (genus),  243,  346. 

ulata,  245.    ' 

Americana,  146,  243. 

campestris,  46,  127,  245. 

effusa.  136. 

fulva,  244,  245. 

Me  ntana,  247. 

suberosa,  136. 

Umbrellaria  California,  298,  299. 
Ungnadia  specio?a,  255. 
Uniforms  worn  by  forest-agents,  106. 
Universities,  Forestry  taught  in,  108. 
Upland-willow-oak,  212,  214. 

Ural  willow,  280. 

Utah,  privilege  of  citizens  of,  95. 

Vaccinium  corymbosum,  li eating 
qualities  of,  146. 

Valley- Forge,  succession  of  timber 
at,  90. 

Valloinbrosa,  School  of  Forestry  at, 
108. 

Valonia,  206. 

Value  of  farms  increased  by  plant- 
ing, 119. 

of  woods  for  heating,  146* 

Vanilla,  artificial,  from  pine  sap,  204. 

Varieties,  perpetuated  by  graiting, 
etc.,-46. 

Vegetable  soil,  4. 

Vegetation,  agency  of  water  in,  22. 

Venice,  piles  charred  in,  189. 

Ventilation  hindered  by  close  plant- 
ing, 118. 

Vessels,  salt  used  for  preserving, 
192. 

sunk  to  preserve  them,  191. 

Viburnum  (genus),  88,  269. 

lentago.  269. 

opulus.  269. 

• prunifolium,  2G9. 

Victoria,  Douglas  fir  in,  338. 

myall,  260. 

Vielles  eeorces  (reserves  so  called), 
101. 


Vigilance   alone   can   prevent   fires, 

156. 
Vienna,  Ringbabn  at,  125. 

School  of  Forestry  at,  107. 

Village-improvement,  119,  122. 
Vilmorin,    plantation    of    pines    by, 

320. 

Vinegar  from  maple  sap,  237. 
Vine-maple,  239. 
Vines,  growth  of  how  influenced  by 

soil,  7. 

Virgila  lutea,  2CO. 
Virginia,  sumac  in,  209. 
Vitality  of  seeds,  36,  41. 
Vitruvius,  cited,  138,  140. 
Volatile  products  of  combustion,  151, 

153. 

Volter,  process  for  wood-pulp,  205. 
Vosges,  summer  the  season   for  cut- 
ting in,  137. 
Walnut  family,  273. 

—  trees,  38/51,  84,  89,    347,    348, 

350. 

Ward's  Peak,  timber-line  on,  25. 
Warder,  Dr.  John    A.,    on    catalpa, 

291. 

Warping  from  seasoning,  141. 
Warring,  Geo.  E.,  jr.,  cited,  123. 
Washington  Ter.,  sale  of  timber  in, 

95. 

Wasps.  179. 

Waste  of  timber,  88,  89. 
Water,  agency  of  in  vegetation,  22. 

ash,  272. 

beech,  233. 

bittern ut-hickory,  275. 

composition  of,  23. 

distribution  of  seeds  by,  32. 

in  newly-cut  wood,  138,  139. 

locust,  259. 

oak,  213,  214. 

pipes  filled  with  roots,  76,  77. 

J19. 

sour-gum  used  for,  208. 

supplies  aliment  to  roots,  23, 

-  -supply  of  cities,  18. 

wood  submerged  in,  191. 

Watering  of  seed-beds,  40. 
Wattles  (Acacias),  259,  260. 
Wayside  planting,  119. 
Web-worms,  181. 
Weeding,  necessity  of,  40,  56. 
Weevil*,  171,  183,  185,  186. 
Weight  lost  in  drying,  139. 
of  charcoal  to  a  cord,  151. 


880 


Index. 


Weight  of  woods,  146. 
Wjiisswasser,  School  of  Forestry  at, 

107. 

Wellino;tonia  (see  Sequoia],  312. 
Wells,  tilled  with  roots,  76,  77,  119. 

woodlands     affect     depths     of 

water  in,  18. 

Western  aspect,  10. 

balsam  fir,  340. 

birch,  230. 

chinquapin,  224. 

juniper.  309. 

larch,  343.     x 

mountain  ash,  262. 

pitch-tree,  337. 

scrub-pine,  325. 

silver-fir  339,  340. 

States,  trees  of,  86. 

yellow  pine,  323. 

yew,  314. 

Wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer,  12, 

13,  14. 

Weymouth  pine,  319. 
Wheat-flies,  179. 
White  alder,  233. 
ants,  174. 

ash,  271. 

balsam,  339. 

bark  pine,  322. 

beech,  227. 

birch  (Betula],  229. 

(P'figus  Solandri),  228. 

cedars,  128,  303,  304,  307. 

• elm,  243. 

fir,  339. 

heart  hickory,  275. 

oaks,  90,  211,  212,  213,  216. 

pines  (general  group  of),  317. 

pine,  86,  87  318,  320,  348,  349. 

(Ptcca  Engelmannii),  334. 

region  cf  N.  W.,  87. 

weevil,  186. 

poplar,  284. 

spruce,  332,  340. 

walnut,  93. 

willow,  93,  279,  280. 

wood,  93,  250 

Whortleberries,  heating  qualities  of 

wood,  146. 
Wild  animals,  injuries  to  trees   by, 

160. 

olive,  273. 

trees,  transplanting  of,  61. 

Willow  family,  277,  278,  347-349. 
as  nurses  for  other  trees,  38. 


Willow,  Bedford,  279. 

Dutch,  283. 

gray  or  white,  347. 

grows  irom  sprouts,  98. 

hybrid,  3. 

insects  injurious  to,  185. 

leaved  poplar,  288. 

oak,  212,  214. 

osier,  280. 

pistilato  flower  of,  31. 

planted  on  dunes,  109. 

with  walnuts,  51. 

roots  seek  water,  75,  77,  119. 

white,  000. 

Winding  paths  in  parks,  125. 
Wind-breaks;  22. 

dispersion  of  seeds  by,  31. 

effect  in  fertilizing  blossoms,  29. 

on  different  aspects,  9,  10. 

-river    mountains,    timber-line 

on,  20. 

Wine  from  birch  sap,  229. 
Wings  upon  seeds,  31. 
Winter,  cutting  of  wood  in,  98. 

severe  cold  of  and  effect,  23. 

Wire  for  bracing  trees,  55. 

for  hedges,! 31. 

Wisconsin,  forests  of,  87. 

grub-prairies  in,  52. 

timber  in,  87. 

Witch-hazel,  88,  146. 

Wood-boring   insects,  164,  165,  166, 

167,  168,  170,  17],  172,    173,    180, 

182,  187. 

chips  for  mulching,  56. 

drying   and   seasoning  of,  139, 

140. 

gas,  preparation  of,  154. 

Woodlands,  areas  of  in  Europe,  83. 

effect  of  upon  rain,  17,  18. 

temperature,  21. 

proportion  to  fields,  82. 

ruin  caused  by  cutting,  26. 

paper   manufacture,  cultivation 

for,  205. 
Wood-lice,  174. 

peckers,  useful  labors  of,  187. 

spirits  from  smoke,  153. 

structure,  66,  67,  68,  69,  74. 

texture    when    grown    in   wet 

places,  22. 

wasps,  174. 

Wounds  of  trees,  59,  74. 
Wrecks  preserved  in  water,  191. 
Wych  elm,  247. 


Index.  381 

Wyoming,  privilege   of  citizens  of,  Yellow  oak.  212. 

95.  pine,  325. 

Xerobotrys  glauca,  289.  heavy,  323,  325. 

A'yloborus,  187.  poplar,  250. 

Xytotorus,  187.  wood,  87,  88,  260. 

Yaupon.  293.  Yew  family,.  84,  304,  314. 

Yellow  bircb,  230.  Young  trees  from  forests,  51. 

cedar,  307.  Zeuzera  aesculi.  175. 

—  cypress,  307.  Zurich,  School  of  Forestry  at,  108. 


PUBLISHED  BY  ROBERT  CLARKE  fef  CO 
A  NEW  EDITION 

OF 

The  Principles  and  Practice 


OF 


LAND  DRAINAGE; 

Embracing  a  brief  History  of  Under  draining: 

A  detailed  examination  of  its  Operation  and  ^dvant 

A  description  of  various  kinds  of  Drains,  with 

Practical  Directions  for  their  Construction  ; 

The  Manufacture  of  Drain  Tile,  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NEARLY  100  ENGRAVINGS. 


By  JOHN  H.  KLIP  PART, 

"Wheat  Plant;"  Corresponding  Secretary  of 
Board  of  Agriculture,  etc. 

2nd  Edition,      i  Vol.  I2mo.,  Cloth,  Price,  $1.75. 


Author  of  the  "Wheat  Plant;"  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Ohio  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  etc. 


Within  the  last  few  years  the  subject  of  Drainage  has  been 
thoroughly  studied,  and  its  importance  and  advantages  practi- 
cally demonstrated  by  the  Agriculturists  of  Europe,  and  par- 
ticularly of  Great  Britain  ;  while  in  this  country  it  has  re- 
ceived but  little  attention  from  farmers  generally  ;  so  little, 
indeed,  that  when  occasionally  intelligent  men  undertake  the 
thorough  drainage  of  their  farms,  they  usually  get  credit  from 
their  do-as-my-father-did  neighbors,  of  burying  their  money 
with  their  tiles.  The  resulting  improved  appearance  of  their 
farms,  and  the  increased  quantity  and  superior  quality  of  theii 


Klipp art's  Land  Drainage. 


crops,  however,  soon  convince  even  the  least  observant  of  the 
profit  of  burying  money  in  this  way.  No  doubt  much  money 
may  be  and  has  been  expended  fruitlessly  in  ill  applied  drain- 
age. The  subject  must  be  understood,  both  in  theory  and 
application,  before  any  of  the  great  practical  results  which 
have  been  attained,  can  be  secured  by  every  one  who  under- 
takes the  drainage  of  his  farm.  The  purpose  of  this  work  is 
to  supply  that  information,  in  a  plain,  practical  way,  easily 
understood  by  any  intelligent  farmer.  It  tells  him  the  prop- 
erties of  his  soil,  and  how  it  is  affected  by  drainage;  what 
kind  of  land  needs  drainage,  when  and  why  it  will  pay. 
Some  of  the  advantages  of  underdraining  are  summed  up  and 
thoroughly  explained  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  It  removes  stagnant  waters  from  the  surface. 

2.  It  removes  surplus  waters  from  under  the  surface. 

3.  It  lengthens  the  working  season. 

4.  It  deepens  the  soil. 

5.  It  warms  the  undersoil. 

6.  It  equalizes  the  temperature  of  the  soil  during  the  sea- 
son of  growth. 

7.  It  carries  down  soluble  substances  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants. 

8.  It  prevents  "freezing  out,"  "heaving  out,"  or  "win- 
ter killing." 

9.  It  prevents  injury  from  drouth. 

10.  It  improves  the  quantity  and  quality  of  crop;   it  in- 
creases the  effect  of  manures. 

11.  It  prevents  rust  in  wheat  and  rot  in  potatoes. 
These  advantages  arc  not  suppositions,  but  are  proved  by 

the  actual  experience  of  intelligent  men,  which  is  given  in 
detail. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  book  are  given  practical  direc- 
tions for  the  location,  cutting,  and  laying  of  the  various  kinds 
of  drains,  according  to  the  position  and  quality  of  the  land : 


Klipparfs  Land  Drainage. 


modes  of  preventing  and  removing  obstructions  in  drains; 
descriptions  of  the  tools,  the  various  improved  plows,  and 
other  inventions  used  in  the  operations;  and  of  the  several 
kinds  of  tile,  their  respective  advantages,  and  minute  direc- 
tions for  their  manufacture,  including  the  selection  and  work 
ing  of  the  materials,  molding,  drying  and  baking  of  the  tile, 
2tc.,  etc. 

The  whole  is  illustrated  with  nearly  a  hundred  engravings 
of  sections  of  drains,  tile,  implements,  etc. 

The  work  is  thorough  and  comprehensive,  and  supplies 
the  farmer  with  all  the  information  which  he  must  possess 
before  he  can  intelligently  and  profitably  commence  opera- 
tions. It  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  farmer  in  the 
country. 

It  is  handsomely  printed  and  well  bound  in  cloth. 


NOTICES   OF   THE   WORK 


From  the  North-Western  Farmer •,  Indianapolis. 
In  answer  to  a  query  from  a  subscriber,  on  the  subject  of 
dra-inage,  the  editor  says: 

"Underdraining  is  a  pet  theme  with  us.  We  advise  our  subscribers  to  get 
a  copy  of  John  H.  Klipparfs  work  on  Land-Drainage,  which  is  undoubt- 
:dly  the  most  comprehensive  and  reliable  work,  on  the  subject  extant.  The 
Publishers,  Robert  Clarke  &  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  have  just  issued  a  new  and 
mproved  edition  of  the  book,  which  anticipates  and  answers  every  question 
Dur  subscriber  has,  or  can  well  laise,  on  the  subject  of  drainage,  and  no 
'armer  can  well  afford  to  be  without  a  copy." 

From  the  Boston  Cultivator. 

"This  is  a  very  comprehensive  work,  in  regard  to  the  history  and  advan- 
.ages  of  drainage,  and  will  be  found  highly  useful  to  most  of  our  farmers. 
We  recommend  this  book  as  worthy  the  attention  of  all  farmers,  who  are 
nterested  in  the  subject  or  land-drainage." 


Klipparfs  Land  Drainage. 


From  the  Chicago  Farmers   Advocate. 

"  We  hail  with  pleasure  the  appearance  of  this  work.  The  au- 
thor— who,  by  the  waj',  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  agricul- 
turists of  the  West — has  taken  great  pains  to  show  the  cost  and 
comparative  value  of  different  kinds  of  drains — open,  mole,  tile, 
brush,  etc.,  etc.— and  their  effect  on  the  different  kinds  of  grain, 
roots,  etc.  We  advise  the  farmers  of  the  West  to  procure  the 
above  work,  and  in  perusing  its  pages  they  will  gain  what  years 
of  experience  alone  can  give." 

From  the  New  England  Farmer. 

"This  is  an  excellent  work  upon  the  subject  of  drainage,  writ- 
ten by  a  person  conversant  with  the  subject,  and  who  was  wil- 
ling to  go  so  far  into  details  as  to  give  the  reasons  why  with- 
drawing water  from  the  soil  tends  to  make  the  soil  deeper  and 
warmer,  and  more  moist  in  a  dry  time  than  an  undrained  soil. 
It  is  written  in  a  plain,  candid  manner,  and  can  not  fail  to  be  ol 
essential  service  to  those  who  will  read  and  practice  its  precepts. 
The  subject  is  one  of  great  importance  to  our  farmers,  and  de- 
mands of  them  more  attention  than  it  has  yet  received." 

From  the  Illinois  Farmer. 

"  We  have  given  this  work  a  pretty  thorough  perusal,  and  must 
say  that  we  are  highly  pleased  with  it.  It  is  eminently  practical, 
and  well  adapted  to  the  soils  of  the  West.  No  nurseryman,  gar- 
dener or  farmer  can  afford  to  do  without  it;  certainly  no  'man 
having  unimproved  land  worth  twenty  dollars  an  acre  should  at- 
tempt its  improvement  without  its  aid." 

Price,     -     -  $l-75 

Sent  by  mail,  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 

ROBERT  CLARKE  &  Co.,  Publishers, 

65  West  Fourth  Street, 

Cincinnati,  O. 


T7INEYARD 
V  ULTURE, 


IMPROVED  AND    CHEAPENED. 


BY  A.  Du  BREUIL, 

PROFESSOR  OF   VITICULTURE    AND    ARBORICULTURE    IN 
THE  ROYAL  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  TRADES,  PARIS, 

TRANSLATED  BY  E.  AND   C.  PARKER, 

OF  LONGWORTH'S  WINE  HOUSE. 


With  Notes  and  Adaptations  to  American 


BY  JOHN  A.  WARDER, 

AUTHOR  OF  "AMERICAN  POMOLOGY." 


144    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


I  vol.  I2mo.  Cloth,  extra,  -  $2  oo 

Sent  by  mail  prepaid  on  receipt  of  price. 

This  volume  contains  the  substance  of  the  Lectures  deliv- 
ered by  direction  of  the  Government,  in  the  Vine  districts 
of  France,  by  A.  Du  Breuil,  Professor  of  Viticulture  in  the. 
Royal  School  of  Arts  and  Trades.  They  are  eminently  prac- 
tical. and  are  a  thorough  exposition  of  the  most  apDrcvt-s 


Vineyard  Culture. 


methods  of  culture  of  the  Vine,  as  practiced  by  the  most 
intelligent  vineyardists  in  Europe,  with  full  details  of  all 
operations>  from  the  preparation  of  the  soil  till  the  gathering 
of  the  vintage. 

The  work  has  been  carefully  edit-ed  by  Dr.  John  A.  Warder, 
an  acknowledged  authority,  and  the  American  variations  of 
practice  noted  and  explained  in  full,  adapting  the  work  to  the 
different  soils,  the  more  extensive  range  of  climate,  and  the 
varieties  of  grapes  most  esteemed  here.  Dr.  W.'s  list  of 
American  vines  and  their  characteristics,  and  the  methods  of 
pruning,  are  particularly  valuable. 

The  American  Journal  of  Horticulture. 

Aside  from  the  reputation  of  the  author  of  this  book,  the  me«-e  fact  that 
Dr.  Warder  has  seen  fit  to  edit  it,  and  introduce  it  to  the  American  horti- 
cultural public,  is  sufficient  proof  that  the  work  has  intrinsic  value. 

We  value  the  work  for  two  reasons  :  First,  it  gives  us  a  clear  and  com- 
prehensive idea  of  the  methods  of  cultivation  approved  and  practiced  by  the 
highest  authorities  in  Europe;  and,  second,  the  notes  interspersed  correct 
what  might  mislead  us,  and  of  themselves  form  an  excellent  vine  manual. 
Dr.  Warder  can  not  treat  any  subject  superficially,  or  so  as  to  make  it  dull. 

The  book  is  finely  printed  on  tinted  paper,  well  illustrated,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, very  creditable  to  the  enterprising  firm  by  which  it  is  published. 

The  Cultivator  and  Country  Gentleman,  Albany ,  N.  7". 

Every  intelligent  vine-grower  must  be  profited  by  the  perusal  of  such  a 
book.  It  seems  to  have  no  special  theories  to  support,  but  simply  to  record 
the  facts  derived  from  observation,  with  attendant  circumstances  on  which 
they  are  based.  Dr.  Warder's  annotations  are  often  of  considerable  length, 
and  appear  to  be  exactly  what  such  a  work  requires  to  suit  it  to  the  wants 
of  an  American  reader. 

Cincinnati  Gazette. 

"The  publishers  are  particularly  fortunate  in  having  for  their  editor 
Dr.  Warder,  whose  reputation  as  a  horticultural  writer  is  national,  and  who 
is  known  to  us  at  the  West  as  a  practical  and  experienced  vineyardist.  His 
notes  to  the  work  are  quite  copious,  forming,  perhaps,  one-sixth  of  the  book. 
They  are  inserted  in  the  text,  forming,  as  they  occur,  a  continuous  treat- 
ment, from  an  American  standpoint,  of  the  subject  under  consideration. 


PUBLJSHED    BY  ROSERT  CLARKE  Sf   CO.,    CINCINNATI,   0. 

THE 

YyiNE-MAKER'S 

MANUAL. 

BY  CHARLES  REEMELIN, 
Author  of  "  The  Vine-Dresser's   Manual" 

WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

i  vol.,   limo.,  Cloth,  Extra  $1.^5 

Sent  by  mail,  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 

This  little  volume  is  a  plain,  practical  guide  to  all 
the  operations  of  Wine-making.  It  is  scientific  in  the 
knowledge  it  conveys,  giving  the  results  of  all  the  latest 
improvements  and  researches  of  Europe  and  this  coun- 
try, yet  free  from  all  the  technicalities  which  tend  only 
to  Testify  those  who  are  not  versed  in  the  sciences. 
The  owner  of  a  vineyard — small  or  large — by  a  careful 
study  of  this  work,  will  be  enabled  to  manufacture  his 
own  wines,  and  obtain  the  best  results. 

Some  chapters  have  been  added  on  Berry  and  Fruit 
Wines,  which  will  be  found  useful  in  every  family. 

The  Table  of  Contents  here  given  will  show  the 
scope  of  the  work 


C  O  1ST  T  E  1ST  T  S  . 


INTRODUCTION 

PAGE. 

CHAP.  I— General  Remarks  on  Wine  Making 1-11 

CHAP.  II— Definition  of  Words  frequently  used  in  the  Book 11-14 

CHAP.  Ill— Preparations  for  Wine  Making 14-17 

CHAP.  IV— The  Vintage T 17-24 

CHAP.  V— When  Grapes  are  Ripe 24-30 

CHAP.  VI— Picking  and  Culling  Grapes 30-33 

CHAP.  VII— The  Grape  Juice  :  "Must  " 33-37 

CHAP.  VIII— The  Ingredients  of  "Must" 37-40 

CHAP.  IX— Improvement  of  "Must" 40-47 

CHAP.  X— Fermentation 47-00 

CHAP.  XI— Changes  through  Fermentation  60-64 

CHAP.  XII— Keeping  Wine  in  the  Cellar 64-72 

CHAP.  XIII— Bottling  Wine 72-74 

CHAP.  XIV— Sweet  Wines 74-77 

CHAP.  XV— Sparkling  Wines 77-82 

CHAP.  XVI— Heating  or  Firing  Wines 82,  83 

CHAP.  XVII— Spiced  Wines  83 

CHAP.  XVIII— Frozen  Wines 84,  85 

CHAP.  XIX— Wine  Colors 86-88 

CHAP.  XX— Constituents  of  Wine 88-92 

CHAP.  XXI— To  remove  Acidity  from  Wine  92-93 

CHAP.  XXII-Artificial  Wines 93-95 

CHAP/  XXIII— Ailments  of  Wines .96,  97 

CHAP.  XXIV— Surrogates— Fruit  Wines 97-101 

CHAP.  XXV— Cider 101-103 

CHAP.  XXVI— Pear  Wine 103 

CHAP.  XXVII— Prune  and  Plum  Wine 104 

CHAP.  XXVIII— Cherry  Wine 104,  105 

CHAP.  XXIX— Gooseberry  Wine 105 

CHAP.  XXX— Currant  Wine 106 

CHAP.  XXXI— Berry  Wines  generally 107 

CHAP.  XXXII— Wines  from  Juices  of  Trees  and  Plants 108, 109 

CHAP.  XXXIII— Uses  of  Offal 109,110 

CHAP.  XXXIV— Imitation  Wines Ill,  112 

CONCLUSION  113 


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HALL  (James.)  Legends  of  the  West.  Sketches  illustrative  of 
the  Habits,  Occupations,  Privations,  Adventures,  and  Sports 
of  the  Pioneers  of  the  West.  12mo.  2  00 

HALL  (James.)  Romance  of  Western  History;  or,  Sketches  of 
History,  Life,  and  Manners  in  the  West.  12mo.  2  00 

HAXOVER  (M.  D.)  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Horses, 
embracing  the  Law  of  Bargain,  Sale,  and  Warranty  of  Horses 
•and  other  Live  Stock  ;  the^Rule  as  to  Unsoundness  and  Vice, 
and  the  Responsibility  of  the  Proprietors  of  Livery,  Auction, 
and  Sale  Stables,  Inn-Keepers,  Veterinary  Surgeons,  and  Far- 
riers, Carriers,  etc.  8vo.  4  00 

HART  (J.  M.)  A  Syllabus  of  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.  8vo. 
Paper.  50 

HASSAUREK  (F.)  The  Secret  of  the  Andes.  A  Romance. 
12mo.  1  50 

THE  SAME,  in  German.  8vo.  Paper,  50c. ;  cloth.  1  00 

HASSAUREK  (F.)  Four  Years  Among  Spanish  Americans.  Third 
Edition.  12mo.  1  50 

HATCH  (Col.  W.  S.)  A  Chapter  in  the  History  of  the  War  of 
1812,  in  the  Northwest,  embracing  the  Surrender  of  the 
Northwestern  Army  and  Fort,  at  Detroit,  August  16,  1813,  etc. 
18mo.  1  25 

HAYES  (Rutherford  B.)  The  Life,  Public  Services,  and  Select 
Speeches  of.  Edited  by  J.  Q.  Howard.  12mo.  Paper,  75c. ; 
cloth,  1  25 

HAZEN  (Gen.  W.  B.)  Our  Barren  Lands.  The  Interior  of  the 
United  States,  West  of  the  One-Hundredth  Meridian,  and 
East  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  8vo.  Paper.  50 


4  Historical  and  Miscellaneous  Publications  of 

HENSHALL  (Dr.  James  A.)  Book  of  the  Black  Bass:  comprising 
its  complete  Scientific  and  Life  History,  together  with  a  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  Agling  and  Fly  Fishing,  and  a  full  description 
of  Tools,  Tackle,  and  Implements.  Illustrated.  12mo.  3  00 

HORTON  (S.  Dana.)     Silver  and  Gold,  and  their  Relation  to  the 

Problem  of  Resumption.     Svo.  1  50 

HORTON  (S.  Dana.)     The  Monetary  Situation.     Svo.     Paper.     50 

HOUGH  (Franklin  B.)  Elements  of  Forestry.  Designed  to  afford 
Information  concerning  the  Planting  and  Care  of  Forest  Trees 
for  Ornament  and  Profit;  and  giving  Suggestions  upon  the 
Creation  and  Care  of  Woodlands,  with  the  view  of  securing  the 
greatest  benefit  for  the  longest  time.  Particularly  adapted  to 
the  Wants  and  Conditions  of  the  United  States.  Illustrated. 
12mo.  2  00 

HOUSEKEEPING  IN  THE  BLUE  GRASS.  A  New  and  Practical  Cook 
Book.  By  Ladies  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  Paris,  Ky. 
12mo.  12th  thousand.  1  50 

HOVEY  (Horace  C.)  Celebrated  American  Caverns,  especially 
Mammoth,  Wyandot,  and  Luray ;  together  with  Historical, 
Scientific,  aud  Descriptive  Notices  of  Caves  and  Grottoes  in 
Other  Lands.  Maps  and  Illustrations.  Svo.  2  00 

HOWE  (H.)  Historical  Collections  of  Ohio.  Containing  a  Col- 
lection of  the  most  Interesting  Facts,  Traditions,  Biographical 
Sketches,  Anecdotes,  etc.,  relating  to  its  Local  and  General 
History.  Svo.  6  00 

HUNT  (W.  E.)  Historical  Collections  of  Coshocton  County,  Ohio. 
Svo.  3  00 

HUSTON  (R.  .G.)  Journey  in  Honduras,  and  Jottings  by  the  Way. 
Inter-Oceanic  Railway.  Svo.  Paper.  50 

JACKSON  (John  D.,  M.  D.)  The  Black  Arts  in  Medicine,  with 
an  Anniversary  Address.  Edited  by  Dr.  L.  S.  McMurtry. 
12mo.  1  00 

JASPER  (T.)  The  Birds  of  North  America.  Colored  Plates,  drawn 
from  Nature,  with  Descriptive  and  Scientific  Letterpress.  In 
40  parts,  $1  00  each ;  or,  2  vols.  Royal  4to.  Half  morocco, 
$50  00 ;  Full  morocco,  60  00 

JORDAN  (D.   M.)      Rosemary   Leaves.      A  Collection  of  Poems. 

18mo.  1  50 

KELLER  (M.  J.)    Elementary  Perspective,  explained  and  applied 

to  Familiar  Objects.     Illustrated.     12mo.  1  00 

KING  (John.)  A  Commentary  on  the  Law  and  True  Construc- 
tion of  the  Federal  Constitution.  Svo.  2  50 

KING  (M.)     Pocket-Book  of  Cincinnati.     24mo,  15 


Robert  Clarice  &  Co. ,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  5 

KLIPPART  (J.  IT.)  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Land  Drainage. 
Illustrated.  12mo.  1  75 

LAW  (J  )  Colonial  History  of  Vincennes,  Indiana,  under  the 
French,  British,  and  American  Governments.  12mo.  1  00 

LLOYD  (J.U.)  The  Chemistry  of  Medicines.  Illus.  12mo.  Cloth, 
$2  75;  sheep,  3  25 

LONGLEY  (Elias).  Eclectic  Manual  of  Phonography. f  A  Complete 
Guide  to  the  Ac  uisition  of  Pitman's  Phonetic  Shorthand, 
without  or  with  a  Teacher.  12mo.  75 

LOXGLEY  (Elias).  The  Phonetic  Reader  and  Writer,  containing 
Reading  Exercises,  with  Translations  on  opposite  pages,  which 
form  Writing  Exercises.  12mo.  25 

LOXGLEY  (Elias).     Phonographic  Chart.     28  x  42  inches.  50 

LONGLEY  (Elias).     Phonographic  Dictionary,  in  press. 

LONGLEY  (Elias).     Reporters  Guide,  in  press. 

McBniDE  (J.)  Pioneer  Biography:  Sketches  of  the  Lives  of 
some  of  the  Early  Settlers  of  Butler  County,  Ohio.  2  vols. 
8vo.  $6  50.  Large  paper.  Imp.  8vo.  1300 

MCLAUGHLIN  (M.  Louise).  China  Painting.  A  Practical  Manual 
for  the  Use  of  Amateurs  in  the  Decoration  of  Hard  Porcelain. 
Sq.  12mo.  Boards.  75 

MCLAUGHLIN-  (M.  Louise).  Pottery  Decoration  :  being  a  Practical 
Manual  of  Underglaze  Painting,  including  Complete  Detail  of 
the  author's  Mode  of  Painting  Enameled  Faience.  Sq.  12mo. 
Bds.  1  00 

MACLEAN  (J.  P.)  The  Mound  Builders,  and  an  Investigation  into 
the  Archaeology  of  Butler  County,  Ohio.  Illus.  12mo.  1  50 

MACLEAN  (J.  P.)  A  Manual  of  Antiquity  of  Man.  Illus,  12mo.  1  00 

MACLEAN  (J.  P.)  Mastodon,  Mammoth,  and  Man.  Illus.   12mo.  60 

MANSFIELD  (E.  D.)  Personal  Memories,  Social,  Political,  and 
Literary.  1803-43.  12mo.  2  00 

MANYPENNY  (G.  W.)  Our  Indian  "Wards:  A  History  and  Discus- 
sion of  the  Indian  Question.  8vo.  3  00 

MAY  (Col.  J.)  Journal  and  Letters  of,  relative  to  Two  Journeys 
to  the  Ohio  Country,  1788  and  1779.  8vo.  2  00. 

METTENHKIMKR  (H.  J.)  Safety  Book-keeping;  being  a  Complete 
Exposition  of  Book-keepers'  Frauds.  12mo.  1  00 

MIXOR  (T.  C.,  M.  D.)  Child-Bed  Fever.  Erysipelas  and  Puer- 
peral Fever,  with  a  Short  Account  of  both  Diseases.  8vo.  2  00 

MIN-OR  (T.  C.,  M.  D.)  Scarlatina  Statistics  of  the  United  States. 
8vo.  Paper.  50 

MORGAN  (Appleton).  The  Shakespearean  Myth;  or,  William 
Shakespeare  and  Circumstantial  Evidence.  12mo.  2  00 

NAME  AND  ADDRESS  BOOK.  A  Blank  Book,  with  printed  Head- 
ings and  Alphabetical  Marginal  Index,  for  Recording  the 
Names  and  Addresses  of  Professional,  Commercial,  and  Family 
Correspondents.  8vo.  1  00 

NASH  (Simeon).     Crime  and  the  Family.     12mo.  1  25 


6  Historical  and  Miscellaneous  Publications  of 

NERINCKX  (Rev.  Charles.)  Life  of,  with  Early  Catholic  Mis- 
sions in  Kentucky;  the  Society  of  Jesus;  the  Sisterhood  of 
Loretto,  etc.  By  Rev.  C.  P.  Maes.  8vo.  2  50 

NICHOLS  (G.  W.)  The  Cincinnati  Organ;  with  a  Brief  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Cincinnati  Music  Hall.  12mo.  Paper.  25 

OHIO  VALLEY  HISTORICAL  MISCELLANIES.  I.  Memorandums  of  a 
Tour  Made  by  Josiah  Epsy,  in  the  States  of  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  Indiana  Territory,  in  1805.  II.  Two  Western  Cam- 
paigns in  the  War  of  1812-13:  1.  Expedition  of  Capt.  H.  Brush, 
with  Supplies  for  General  Hurl.  2.  Expedition  of  Gov.  Meigs, 
for  the  relief  of  Fort  Meigs.  By  Samuel  Williams.  III.  The 
Leatherwood  God:  an  account  of  the  Appearance  and  Preten- 
sions of  J.  C.  Dylks  in  Eastern  Ohio,  in  1828.  By  R.  H.  Taney- 
hill.  1  vol.  8vo.  $2  50.  Large  paper,  5  00 

ONCE  A  YEAR;  or,  The  Doctor's  Puzzle.     By  E.  B.  S.     16mo.  1  00 

PHISTERER  (Captain  Frederick.)     The  National  Guardsman:  on 

Guard  and  Kindred  Duties.     24mo.     Leather.  75 

PHYSICIAN'S  POCKET  CASE  RECORD  PRESCRIPTION  BOOK.  35 

PHYSICIAN'S  GENERAL  LEDGER.     Half  Russia.  4  00 

PIATT  (John  J.)  Penciled  Fly-Leaves.  A  Book  of  Essays  in 
Town  and  Country.  Sq.  16 mo.  1  00 

POOLE  (W.  F.)  Anti-Slavery  Opinions  before  1800.  An  Essay. 
8vo.  Paper,  75c. ;  cloth,  1  25 

PRACTICAL  RECEIPTS  OF  EXPERIENCED  HOUSE-KEEPERS.  By  the  ladies 
of  the  Seventh  Presbyterian  Church,  Gin.  12mo.  1  25 

PRENTICE  (Geo.  D.)      Poems  of,  collected  and  edited,  with  Bio- 

grapLical  Sketch,  by  John  J.  Piatt.     12mo.  2  00 

QUICK  (R.  H.)     Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.     12mo.  1  50 

RANCK  (G.  W.)  History  of  Lexington,  Kentucky.  Its  Early 
Annals  and  Recent  Progress,  etc.  8vo.  4  00 

REEMELIN  (C.)  They  Wine-Maker's  Manual.  A  Plain,  Practical 
Guide  to  all  the  Operations  for  the  Manufacture  of  Still  and 
Sparkling  Wines.  12mo.  1  25 

REEMELIN  (C.)     A  Treatise  on  Politics  as  a  Science.     8vo.     1  50 

REEMELIN  (C.)  A  Critical  Review  of  American  Politics.  Svo. 
In  Press. 

RIVES  (E.,  M.  D.)  A  Chart  of  the  Physiological  Arrangement  of 
Cranial  Nerves.  Printed  in  large  type,  on  a  sheet  28x15 
inches.  Folded,  in  cloth  case.  50 

ROBERT  (Karl).  Charcoal  Drawing  with  out  a  Master.  A  Com- 
plete Treatise  in  Landscape  Drawing  in  Charcoal,  with  Les- 
sons and  Studies  after  Allonge.  Translated  by  E.  H.  Apple- 
ton.  Illustrated.  Svo  1  00 


Robert  Clarke  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  7 

EOT  (George).     Generalship;  or,  How  I  Managed  my  Husband. 

A  tale.  18rno.  Paper,  50c-  cloth,  1  00 

ROY  (George).  The-  Art  of  Pleasing.  A  Lecture.  12mo. 

Paper.  25 

EOY  (George).  The  Old,  Old  Story.  A  Lecture.  12mo.  Paper.  25 
EUSSELL  (A.  P.).  Thomas  Corwin.  A  Sketch.  16mo.  1  00 

RUSSELL  (Wm.)  Scientific  Horseshoeing  for  the  Different  Dis- 
eases of  the  Feet.  Illustrated.  8vo.  1  00 

SAYLEB  (J.  A.)  American  Form  Book.  A  Collection  of  Legal 
and  Business  Forms,  embracing  Deeds,  Mortgages,  Leases, 
Bonds,  Wills,  Contracts,  Bills  of  Exchange,  Promissory  Notes, 
Checks,  Bills  of  Sale,  Receipts,  and  other  Legal  Instruments, 
prepared  in  accordance  with  the  Laws  of  the  several  States; 
with  Instructions  for  drawing  and  executing  the  same.  For 
Professional  and  Business  Men.  8vo.  2  00 

SHEETS  (Mary  E.)  My  Three  Angels:  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love. 
With  full-page  illustrations  by  E.  D.  Grafton.  4to.  Cloth. 
Gilt.  5  00 

SKINNER  (J.  E.)  The  Source  of  Measures.  A  Key  to  the  Hebrew- 
Egyptian  Mystery  in  the  Source  of  Measures,  etc.  8vo.  5  00 

SMITH  (Col.  JAMES).  A  Eeprint  of  an  Account  of  the  Remark- 
able Occurrences  in  his  Life  and  Travels,  during  his  Captivity 
with  the  Indians  in  the  years  1755,  '56,  '57,  '58,  and  '59,  etc. 
8vo.  $2  50.  Large  paper,  5  00 

STANTON  (H.)     Jacob  Brown  and  other  Poems.     12mo.  1  50 

ST.CLAIR  PAPERS.  A  Collection  of  the  Correspondence  and  other 
papers  of  General  Arthur  St.Clair,  Governor  of  the  Northwest 
Territory.  Edited,  with  a  Sketch  of  his  Life  and  Public  Ser- 
vices, by  William  Henry  Smith.  2  vols.  8vo.  6  00 

STRAUCH  (A.)  Spring  Grove  Cemetery,  Cincinnati:  its  Hiltory 
and  improvements,  with  Observations  on  Ancient  and  mod- 
ern Places  of  Sepulture.  The  text  beautifully  printed  with 
ornamental,  colored  borders,  and  photographic  illustrations. 
4to.  Cloth.  Gilt.  15  00 

An  8vo  edition,  without  border  and  illustrations.  2  00 

STUDER  (J.  H.)  Columbus,  Ohio:  its  History,  Eesources,  and  Pro- 
gress, from  its  Settlement  to  the  Present  Time.  12mo.  2  00 

TANEYHILL  (E.  H.)  The  Leatherwood  God:  an  account  of  the 
Appearance  and  Pretensions  of  Joseph  C.  Dylks  in  Eastern 
Ohio,  in  1826.  12mo.  Paper.  .  30 

TEN  BROOK  (A.)  American  State  Universities.  Their  Origin  and 
Progress.  A  History  of  the  Congressional  University  Land 
Grants.  A  particular  account  of  the  Rise  and  Development  of 
the  University  of  Michigan,  and  Hints  toward  the  future 
of  the  American  University  System.  8vo.  2  00 


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TILPEN  (Louise  W.)  Karl  and  Gretchen's  Christmas.  Illustrated. 
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TILDEN  (Louise  W.)  Poem,  Hymn,  and  Mission  Band  Exercises. 
Written  and  arranged  for  the  use  of  Foreign  Missionary  Soci- 
eties and  Mission  Bands.  Square  12mo.  Paper.  25 

TRENT  (Capt.  Wm.)  Journal  of,  from  Logstown  to  Pickawillany, 
in  1752.  Edited  by  A.  T.  Goodman.  8vo.  2  50 

TRIPLER  (C.  S.,  M.D.)  and  BLACKMAN  (G.  C.,  M.D.)  Handbook  for 
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TYLER  DAVIDSON  FOUNTAIN.  History  and  Description  of  the 
Tyler  Davidson  Fountain,  Donated  to  the  City  of  Cincinnati, 
by  Henry  Probasco.  18mo.  Paper.  25 

VAGO  (A.  L.)  Instructions  in  the  art  of  Modeling  in  Clay. 
With  an  Appendix  on  Modeling  in  Foliage,  etc.,  for  Pottery  and 
Architectural  Decorations,  by  Benn  Pitman,  of  Cincinnati 
School  of  Design.  Illustrated.  Square  12mo.  1  00 

VANHORNE  (T.  B.)  The  History  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland ; 
its  Organization,  Campaigns,  and  Battles.  Library  Edition. 
2  vols.  With  Atlas  of  22  maps,  compiled  by  Edward  Ruger. 
8vo. Cloth,  $8  00;  Sheep,  $10  00;  Half  Morocco,  $12  00. 
Popular  Edition.  Containing  the  same  Text  as  the  Library 
Edition,  but  only  one  map.  2  vols.  8vo.  Cloth.  5  00 

VENABLE  (W.  H.)  June  on  the  Miami,  and  other  Poems.  Second 
edition.  18mo.  1  50 

VOORIIEES  (D.  W.)  Speeches  of,  embracing  his  most  prominent 
Forensic,  Political,  Occasional,  and  Literary  Addresses.  Com- 
piled by  his  son,  C.  S.  Voorhees,  with  a  Biographical  Sketch 
and  Portrait.  8vo.  5  00 

WALKER  (C.  M.)  History  of  Athens  County,  Ohio,  and  inci- 
dentally of  the  Ohio  Land  Company,  and  the  First  Settlement 
of  the  State  at  Marietta,  etc.  8vo.  $6  00.  Large  Paper.  2 
vols.  $12  00.  Popular  Edition.  "  4  00 

WALTON  (G.  E.)  Hygiene  and  Education  of  Infants;  or,  How 
to  take  care  of  Babies.  24mo.  Paper.  25 

WARD  (Durbin).  American  Coinage  and  Currency.  An  Essay 
read  before  the  Social  Science  Congress,  at  Cincinnati,  May 
22,  1878.  8vo.  Paper.  10 

WEBB  (F.)  and  JOHNSTON  (M.  C.)  An  Improved  Tally-Book,  for 
the  use  of  Lumber  Dealers.  18rno.  50 

WHTTTAKER  (J.  T.,  M.  D.)  Physiology;  Preliminary  Lectures. 
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WILLIAMS  (A.  D.,  M.  D.)  Itiseases  of  the  Ear,  including  Neces- 
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YOUNG  (A.)  History  of  Wayne  County, -Indiana,  from  its  A*ist 
•Settlement  to  the  Present  Time.  8vo.  2  00 


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